Chapter 10: Image and Meaning Combined: Pun
(A Pun)
Section One: The Definition and Function of Pun
- Association: One Word, Two Meanings
“Image and meaning combined” refers to an image possessing “dual semanticity.” Besides its literal original meaning, it simultaneously implicates another meaning. In other words, what the writer says on the surface actually contains another hidden implication, often presenting a situation in which “the words are here, but the meaning is elsewhere.” Put differently, it simultaneously possesses two meanings: the surface meaning of the words and the hidden deep meaning.
In daily speech and writing, the rhetorical device of “double entendre” is often used, frequently revealing ingenious thought and causing people to smile knowingly:
“To love to the highest point, safety has a complete set.” — Public-service advertising slogan promoted by the Taipei City Department of Health.
“A complete set” makes people think of “condoms.” This is due to the “suggestiveness” inherent in the pun itself.
“Intercepting overloaded trucks; the driver refused inspection, and the police officer’s emotions were overloaded as well.” — Headline from the society section of the China Times.
The society news section has always demanded that “both wording and meaning be skillfully crafted.” In this example, “truck overload” and “emotional overload” form a pun, brimming with amusement.
“Do you want to become a woman whom men cannot ‘grasp with one hand’? ‘Maidengfeng’ lets your bosom become magnificent, giving you ‘twin peaks’ that tower proudly above all women.” — Television breast-enhancement advertisement.
Such advertisements inevitably carry the suspicion of “objectifying” women. Nevertheless, regarding the literal suggestion of “grasp with one hand” and “twin peaks,” and the erotic associations they evoke, this advertisement indeed achieves its purpose of promoting its product (including services).
- The Definition and Function of Pun
Chen Wangdao said: “Pun is a rhetorical method that uses one phrase simultaneously to concern two different things.” He also said, “The establishment of this rhetorical figure requires, as a necessary condition, that the pronunciation be capable of relating both to the thing before the eyes and the thing in the mind. The focus lies in the pronunciation itself, in the equivalence or similarity between the pronunciation used as the pun and the pronunciation that expresses the intended meaning. Therefore, examples of this rhetorical figure are often seen in literary forms such as songs and dramas that emphasize sound.”1
Scholar Huang Qingxuan said: “Just like ‘metaphor,’ ‘metonymy,’ and ‘contrast,’ the principle of pun also involves taking two concepts that normally belong to different categories and, through their hidden points of similarity, unexpectedly substituting or connecting them.” As for the rhetorical effect of puns, he stated: “Thus, like gazing at a novel object or listening to an unfamiliar sound, the reader receives the author’s witty challenge with astonishment and bewilderment.”2 This demonstrates the captivating charm of punning language.
Scholar Huang Lizhen said: “This relies upon the conditions of homophony or polysemy in characters, words, and expressions, allowing one word or sentence simultaneously to possess both a literal meaning and an extra-literal meaning; moreover, the author’s expressive purpose lies in the extra-literal meaning. This rhetorical method makes use of divergences in the sound and meaning of words to construct dual layers of sound and meaning, thereby achieving the purposes of ‘killing two birds with one stone’ and ‘gaining two benefits with one move.’ That is, ‘speech carrying a double entendre outside the words’ refers to expressions of ‘one phrase, two meanings’ appearing in written passages or ordinary speech. The similarity between punning language and ‘symbolic language’ lies in the fact that both are established upon the ambiguity and polysemy of language, namely ‘extended meaning’ or ‘borrowed meaning.’ ‘The words are here while the meaning is there’; on the surface one speaks of A, but deep down one actually points to B — this is precisely the purpose of using ‘pun.’”
The functions of pun include: (1) expressing emotion through objects, making use of similar or approximate sounds, that is, using objects before one’s eyes to connect to the feelings one wishes to express inwardly; (2) borrowing meaning through objects, making use of the phonetic and semantic conditions of words to use visible objects to express another meaning in one’s heart; (3) “pointing at the mulberry tree while cursing the locust tree,” using present objects or words to cleverly connect with past objects or words in order to satirize or ridicule.4
- The Historical Origins of Pun
In The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, in the chapter “Humor and Hidden Meaning,” it says: “Yin means concealment; hidden words conceal intentions, and deceptive metaphors point to matters.”5 “Yin” refers to hidden language, using concealed expressions to cover intentions and employing cunning metaphors to indirectly connect with the theme. It points out that there are two kinds of hidden language: one is when something cannot conveniently be said directly, so hidden language is used instead — essentially speaking in riddles. Such hidden language has little literary significance. The other is to use hidden language for satire and admonition, exercising an active and positive function, namely: “The greater use is to promote governance and benefit oneself; the lesser use is to correct faults and dispel confusion.” From a broad perspective, at the level of state and society, it can revitalize the nation and assist governance; at the personal level, it can rectify one’s character and conduct in life. From a more universal perspective, it can also correct mistakes and resolve doubts. Liu Xie further said: “The use of hidden language appears throughout chronicles and biographies. Its greater use is to promote governance and benefit oneself; its lesser use is to correct faults and dispel confusion. Intentions arise from expedient cunning, and matters emerge from urgent circumstances; together with humorous speech, they complement each other internally and externally.” He pointed out that the emergence of “hidden language” results from “expedient cunning and urgent situations”: some events arrive with great urgency, requiring wit and adaptability to cope with them, or unexpected situations requiring immediate response. Furthermore, he regarded humorous speech (ironic language) and hidden language (pun) as mutually complementary, able to achieve the same effect through different means. Liu Xie concluded the chapter “Humor and Hidden Meaning” by saying: “In ancient times, satirical concealment rescued danger and relieved exhaustion. Though there are fine silks and hemp, reeds and coarse grass should not be discarded. If meaning accords with the time, it greatly aids admonition and warning; empty jesting and buffoonery gravely damage noble speech.” The ancients wrote satirical works with the intention of rescuing danger and alleviating hardship. Just as even though there are refined silks and hemp, coarse reeds still have their uses and should not be discarded. If one can grasp the central theme and apply it at the proper time, it should help the practice of satire and admonition. But if one merely flaunts cleverness to curry favor, it will harm proper literary style.
Regarding “pun,” Xie Zhen’s Siming Poetry Talks considered it to be “pointing to objects while borrowing meaning,” while Qing dynasty scholar Li Diaoyuan’s Yucun Poetry Talks called it “borrowing characters to convey allegory.” “Pointing to objects while borrowing meaning” refers to making use of conditions in which words share the same or similar pronunciation, or where one word simultaneously possesses dual meanings, using literal words or visible objects to express another meaning in one’s heart, including both “phonetic pun” and “semantic pun.” “Borrowing characters to convey meaning” refers to borrowing the sound associations or semantic implications of one character to imply another layer of meaning.
Now let us see how ancient poets and lyricists skillfully employed “pun”:
“The spring silkworm spins silk until death; the candle turns to ash before its tears dry.” (Tang dynasty, Li Shangyin, “Untitled”). On the surface this refers to silkworm silk and candle tears. Through the catalytic effect of “personification,” both the spring silkworm and the candle acquire human feelings, causing “silk” to relate to “lovesickness,” and “candle tears” likewise to relate to “tears.” Through “associative similarity,” namely the shared quality of “not stopping until death,” the poet places the originally unrelated “spring silkworm” and “candle” together, not only opening imaginative space but also intensifying lingering emotion.
“The willow trees are green, the river level with the shore; I hear my young man singing upon the river. The east is sunny while the west is clear after rain; they say there is no feeling, yet there is feeling.” (Tang dynasty, Liu Yuxi, “Bamboo Branch Song”). This poem imitates the voice of a young girl in first love. The first line describes what she sees: green willows and mirror-like river waves in spring, a scene of graceful beauty. Next comes what she hears: the familiar singing voice of a young man drifting across the river. The last two lines use the word “qing” (“clear weather”), which sounds the same as “qing” (“feeling, affection”), to suggest emotion, vividly conveying the girl’s secret complaint that the other person’s attitude is not sufficiently clear.
“Before Kongming’s temple stands an ancient cypress, its branches like bronze, its roots like stone. … Heroes and recluses need not lament; since ancient times, great talent has been hard to employ.” (Tang dynasty, Du Fu, “Song of the Ancient Cypress”). Li Bai in “Bring in the Wine” said, “Heaven gave me talent, and it must be useful,” but the poet deliberately sings the opposite tune by saying “great talent is hard to employ.” “Great timber” refers both to the “ancient cypress” and to the “greatly talented person.” On the surface he complains on behalf of Kongming, saying that although Kongming was a “greatly talented person,” his abilities were not fully utilized, and he could not complete the restoration of the Han dynasty. Hidden beneath, however, the poet is venting his own frustration, sarcastically criticizing the court for not employing him, another “greatly talented person.” This is “semantic association.”
Section Two: The Theoretical Basis of Pun
- Pun: A Magic Box Hiding a Little Person
The great aesthetician George Santayana (1863–1952), in Chapter Four, “Theory of Expression,” in his book The Sense of Beauty, in the section on “The Comic,” said: “A pun (a witty remark; a pun) is like a jack-in-the-box that suddenly pops out a goblin, leaping without reason into our care-laden thoughts. The liveliness and futility of such unexpected interruption often delight people.”6 The essence of “pun” is a form of “wit” expressed through language, while “comicness” is its practical effect.
The so-called “speech carrying a double entendre” refers to “within a certain linguistic environment, using one sound, one word, or one sentence simultaneously to relate to two different things, expressing dual meanings, while the words are here but the meaning is elsewhere; this is also called ‘polysemous association.’”7 In other words, expressions possessing “one phrase, two meanings” appear in written passages or ordinary speech. The similarity between punning language and “symbolic language” lies in the fact that both are established upon the ambiguity and polysemy of language, namely “extended meaning” or “borrowed meaning.” This rhetorical method is a form of “killing two birds with one stone,” “gaining two benefits with one move,” or “meaning hidden within words” and “pointing at the mulberry tree while cursing the locust tree,” simultaneously possessing both “suggestiveness” and “ambiguity.”
- Pun: False Wit
In Chapter Fifteen of Theory of Literature, coauthored by René Wellek (1903–1995) and Austin Warren (1899–1986), “pun” is described as follows: “In the nineteenth century, ‘pun’ was classified as ‘play on words,’ ‘the lowest form of wit’; but already in the eighteenth century, Joseph Addison had classified it as ‘false wit.’ However, Baroque poets and modern poets have taken it quite seriously as a ‘compound of ideas,’ a ‘same word with different meanings’ or a ‘homophone with different meanings,’ namely a kind of ‘euphemistic’ implication.”8 Meanwhile, Santayana, in the section “The Comic” of The Sense of Beauty, believed that comicness and grotesqueness are aesthetic values suggested by evil. The characteristic of comicness lies in luring people onto the wandering bypaths of fantasy, though not in making us truly perform such fantasies in fixed life. Comic effects may make people happy but rarely produce aesthetic beauty, because what flowery rhetoric cannot accomplish — the laughter produced by contradictory fantasy and excessive exaggeration — leaves behind an uncomfortable impression or a ridiculous aftertaste. Furthermore, “pun” naturally contains a vulgar element, an annoying undertone of low taste.9
The author believes that “comicness” or “causing laughter” is not necessarily the effect produced by “pun.” “Pun” often reveals a kind of “wit,” but its purpose is not merely to display “low taste” through “word games.” The author agrees that “pun” is a “compound of ideas” and does not necessarily contain an “evil suggestion,” even when it appears in the form of a “witty remark.” In our daily language or literary writing, “pun” can convey or express a certain “interest.” Because of its implied meanings and unspoken suggestions, whether this interest is vulgar or crude depends entirely upon whether the user’s “motivation is pure.” If it is for the effect of humor and does not carry an uncomfortable impression, then it need not be vulgar.
“The establishment of this rhetorical figure requires, as a necessary condition, that pronunciation be capable of relating both to the thing before the eyes and the thing in the mind. The focus lies in the pronunciation itself, in the equivalence or similarity between the pronunciation used as the pun and the pronunciation that expresses the intended meaning.”11 The theoretical basis of pun, on the phonetic level, is established upon the psychological principle of “associative similarity” and the semantic principle of “double reference.” Regarding the former, mainland Chinese scholar Zong Tinghu, in Rhetoric and Psychology, said: “When using pun, the speaker or writer must rely upon ingenious association, and listeners or readers must likewise comprehend the author’s wit through association.”12 Huang Qingxuan also said: “Just like ‘metaphor,’ ‘metonymy,’ and ‘contrast,’ the principle of pun consists precisely in taking two concepts that normally belong to different categories and, through their hidden points of similarity, unexpectedly substituting or connecting them.”13 As for the latter, mainland Chinese scholar Cheng Weijun said: “The objective basis of the surface meaning of pun is some thing or phenomenon; it requires there to be something available for borrowing. The basis for understanding the inner meaning is the internal logical connection of objective things. The rhetorical function of ‘pun’ lies precisely in the ‘surface’ and the ‘inside’: from the surface form to the essential body, association is generated.”14
“Pun,” like gazing upon a novel object or listening to an unfamiliar sound, causes readers to accept the author’s witty challenge with astonishment and bewilderment, fully demonstrating the captivating charm of punning language.
Section Three: The Semantic Structure of Pun
- One Body, Two Sides
“The literal meaning of pun is explicit; the implied meaning is hidden. Whatever expresses the literal meaning is called the surface body; whatever expresses the implied meaning is called the essential body. Generally speaking, the true purpose of the speaker or writer lies in using pun to express the implied meaning.”15 The literal meaning of pun corresponds to the “surface meaning” in semantics; the implied meaning corresponds to the “deep meaning.” Through sound and semantics, the literal meaning provides readers with clues, enabling them to gain the pleasure of “the words are here while the meaning is elsewhere” through exploration.
- The Distinction Between Pun and Similar Rhetorical Figures
- Pun and Irony
Their similarities are: (1) both possess “suggestiveness” in nature; (2) their words possess dual meanings; (3) both possess the function of ridicule and satire. Their differences are: (1) the basis of pun lies in the overlapping relationship of sound and meaning between the surface and inner things, whereas irony is established upon the oppositional relationship between literal meaning (surface meaning) and the true implied meaning; (2) the true meaning of pun is hidden within the “literal wording,” while the true meaning of irony lies in the “opposite side” of the word’s meaning.
- Pun and Metaphorical Substitution
Their similarity is that both make use of the dual meanings of words to highlight and emphasize the essential object. Their differences are: (1) pun requires overlapping relations of sound or meaning between the surface and inner things, whereas in metaphorical substitution, the essential body and metaphorical body only need similarity in form or characteristics, so metaphorical substitution can be transformed into simile; (2) in pun, the surface body and essential body appear simultaneously, and the two meanings expressed primarily concern not the literal meaning but the hidden meaning, whereas metaphorical substitution presents only the metaphorical body and emphasizes only its literal meaning.
- Pun and Euphemism
Both possess implicitness and adopt indirect, subtle modes of expression. Their difference lies in the fact that pun intentionally uses one word to refer to another thing, so that the meaning lies not on the surface but in the hidden implication — one phrase bearing two meanings. Euphemism, however, avoids directly stating a certain meaning, deliberately speaking ambiguously and expressing the intended content indirectly.
Section Four: The Expressive Types of Pun
Most scholars generally divide the expressive forms of pun into three categories: phonetic pun (homophonic pun), semantic pun, and surface-inner pun; or further divide “semantic pun” into “same-character pun”16 or “phonetic-semantic pun.”17 In addition, the author proposes supplementing these with the higher-level concept of “thematic pun,” namely: “a certain theme simultaneously relates to two different propositions — one being the literal referent of the text, the other being the implied reference within the literary meaning — while these two propositions share a commonality in nature or intention.” Examples will be provided later in this article.
(1) Phonetic Pun (Homophonic Resonance)
“Having broken the wooden bed frame, who can sit in longing? At midnight I write upon the stone gate, remembering you as I inscribe the stele.” (Collection of Yuefu Poems, “Reading Song”). “Inscribing the stele” shares the same pronunciation as “weeping in sorrow,” thus employing the condition of “homophonic characters” to create dual meaning, causing readers to produce associations “from surface to depth.” This is “homophonic pun.” Homophonic pun was extensively employed in Yuefu poetry, such as: “Mist and dew conceal the lotus flower; seeing the lotus is not clearly distinguishable.” (“Lotus” also refers to “husband’s appearance,” while “seeing the lotus” also carries the meaning of “receiving pity.”) “The silkworms do not spin cocoons; day and night they hang long threads.” (“Thread” also implies “thought.”) “The paulownia branch bears no blossoms; how can one obtain a paulownia seed?” (“Paulownia seed” also refers to “my child.”) “Cutting the lotus does not sever the roots; the lotus heart lives once more.” (“Lotus heart” also means “compassionate heart.”)
From the creator’s perspective, “phonetic pun” makes use of the conditions of identical pronunciation (same sound, different characters) or similar pronunciation (similar sound, different characters) in words to construct dual meanings. From the reader’s perspective, “phonetic pun” means that within a piece of writing, a certain word appears on the surface to refer to thing A, yet because its pronunciation is identical or similar to another word, the reader, through “associative similarity,” senses that the word actually refers to thing B represented by another word sharing the same or similar pronunciation — which precisely coincides with the author’s hidden subjective intention. “The establishment of this rhetorical figure requires, as a necessary condition, that pronunciation be capable of relating both to the thing before the eyes and the thing in the mind. The focus lies in the pronunciation itself, in the equivalence or similarity between the pronunciation used as the pun and the pronunciation that expresses the intended meaning.”18 This passage explains that the equivalence or similarity between the pronunciation used as the pun and the pronunciation expressing the intended meaning is the crucial key by which the creator draws together the visible thing and the inward thought. From the psychological perspective, equivalence or similarity of sound is precisely the main clue that triggers the reader’s “associative similarity.”
In classical poetry and lyrics, “phonetic pun” is extremely common. For example: “I write no love lyrics, I write no poems; a plain silk handkerchief conveys my feelings to the one who understands my heart. When the one who understands receives it, she looks at it upside down: horizontally it is thread, vertically it is thread — who can understand feelings like these?” (Feng Menglong, “Mountain Song”). “Thread” and “thought” are homophonically related. Regarding the handkerchief, it is “thread”; regarding emotions, it is “thought.”
Chen Li, “Mistress”19
“My mistress is a loosened guitar
Hidden in its case lies a smooth body
Even moonlight cannot shine upon it
Occasionally I take her out
Holding her in my arms, gently
Caressing her cold neck and back
My left hand locks the strings, my right hand tests the sound
Performing all kinds of tuning movements
Then she becomes tense like a real
Six-stringed guitar, tightly stretched
With beauty ready to erupt at a touch”
The poet first metaphorically describes a stored “guitar” as his “mistress,” because the loosened strings require adjustment. “Tuning the guitar” and “flirting” possess similar pronunciation, forming a “homophonic pun.” The poet seizes upon this characteristic to cleverly suggest the emotional changes of the woman (the guitar) in the poem during the process of “tuning.”
Tan Zhen, “Cherry Blossoms in the Nude”20
“The nude cherry blossoms spread open their arms
Breathing in and out the void
In the quiet night
The earth’s heart beats
Stars curl at the feet
Fine snow drifts over to warm the body
Geothermal heat rises into flames
The womb’s temperature grows higher and higher
A new cherry blossom is about to emerge”
“The womb’s temperature grows higher and higher / A new cherry blossom is about to emerge” — here, within the contextual environment of “womb” in the preceding line, “new cherry blossom” simultaneously carries the semantic layer of “new baby.” This demonstrates that the “dual-layered semantics” of pun are formed within an ambiguous context. Regardless of whether this context is formed through sound, meaning, or surface-inner relations, besides the literal surface meaning, another clue for association is provided, allowing readers to follow the thread toward another derived meaning.
Liu Zhengwei, “Fog”
“When fog spreads, the truth will not become clear
More fog gathers around to watch
This cloud, that cloud, and another cloud
All become entangled together, mixing
Why not? Stop for a moment
Quietly wait for the fog to disperse
Then you will see and smell sunlight and flowers
Because when fog spreads
Everyone is easily misled
The world becomes even more hazy
Without realizing it, the fog wounds one another”
In the final section of “Fog,” the author cleverly connects the character “fog” with the character “mistake” through phonetic pun and graphic manipulation. Thus there emerge the innovative expressions “misunderstanding/fog-understanding” and “injury/fog-injury,” simultaneously possessing the dual semantic layers of pun.
- Semantic Pun (Semantic Dual Reference)
“When one word in a sentence simultaneously contains two meanings, it is called semantic pun.”21 That is, making use of the polysemy of Chinese words to produce different understandings of a word, linking two things together in order to express specific content.22 “In the Collection of Yuefu Poems, ‘bolt of cloth’ often puns upon both cloth and mate; ‘close’ puns upon closing doors and caring; ‘road’ puns upon pathways and speaking; ‘bitterness’ puns upon bitter flavor and bitter emotions; ‘dissolve’ puns upon melting and wasting away; ‘powder’ puns upon medicinal powder and separation — all belonging to this category.”23 Poetry occasionally employs such usage as well. For example: “The candle has a heart and still grieves for parting, shedding tears for others until dawn.” (Tang dynasty, Du Mu, “Poem on Parting”). Here “candle heart” puns upon “human heart.” Another example: “The wild wind has blown away the deep red blossoms; green leaves form shade and fruits fill the branches.” (Du Mu, “Sighing over Flowers”). “Fruits fill the branches” puns upon both “fruit” and “children.” Likewise, in the modern song “Do Not Pick the Wildflowers by the Roadside,” “wildflowers” puns upon “other women outside the relationship.” This is also “semantic pun.”
Du Ye, “Gloves and Love”24
“Upon the table quietly lies an English word in black type
Glove
I use it to resist the coldness of life
The pair of black leather gloves she placed upon the table
Covers the first letter
Perfectly allowing love to reveal itself completely
Love
Without phonetic symbols
We can only read it through silence
She picks up the pair of gloves on the table
Allowing love to hide
Quietly placing it upon my cold hands
Allowing love to hide completely inside the gloves”
The English word “glove” and “love” differ by exactly one letter, “g.” From this inspiration, the author constructs a simple narrative plot: when the letter “g” appears, it is “glove”; when “g” is hidden, what remains is “love.” Through the interaction between the two, the poem conveys the “appearance and concealment” of love. This poem employs the similarity in written form and emotional association between the two English words, displaying considerable ingenuity.
“Perfectly allowing love to reveal itself completely” — here the revelation of “love” is an example of “semantic pun,” simultaneously referring both to the concrete appearance of the word “love” and to the manifestation of love in meaning. In the following development, after the gloves are picked up, the situation changes, and the word on the table returns from “love” to “glove,” as though “love” were hidden inside “glove.” Thus the next line says, “allowing love to hide.” Here it refers both to the hiding of the word “love” and to the idea that love need not be spoken aloud, allowing this confession of “love” to remain hidden without direct declaration. This is again “semantic dual reference”: the “semantic association” within pun.
Du Shisan, “Ear Fruit”25
“After the ears grow old
And dig out all the sounds accumulated into filth
Only then does one clearly hear that the world is merely
Several iron nails
Heavily hammering against a coffin
Empty! / Empty! / Empty! / — a maxim”
The “empty! empty! empty!” sound made by iron nails striking a coffin is, on the literal level, an onomatopoeic word. Yet within the “old age” context constructed by the preceding lines and the clue “a maxim” in the final line, readers associate through the clue of “enlightenment in old age” toward another semantic layer of “emptiness”: “awakening to the realization that life is ultimately empty.”
- Surface-Inner Pun (Semantic Suggestion)
“Sentence-level pun refers to one sentence, or one passage, punning upon two things.”26 “That is, making use of similarities in sound and form so that on the surface the wording appears identical, while secretly containing another implication.”27 For example: “Freshly woven white silk, bright as frost and snow; cut into a reunion fan, round as the bright moon. Entering and leaving my lord’s sleeves, swaying as the gentle wind arises. I constantly fear the coming of autumn, when cool winds dispel the summer heat. Cast aside into trunks and chests, affection cut off midway.” (Han dynasty, Ban Jieyu, “Song of Resentment”). The author uses the fan to symbolize a woman: summer fans are cherished, autumn fans are coldly neglected like abandoned or resentful wives. Here the autumn fan puns upon the abandoned and resentful woman. Another example: “Green straw raincoat or purple gauze robe — who is master? Neither is of any help. Even if one becomes a fisherman, one still dwells amid wind and waves. Better instead to find a stable place and sit leisurely.” (Yuan dynasty, Ma Zhiyuan, “Qingjiang Tune”). This short lyric depicts real life through the contrast between officialdom and the reclusive fisherman. No matter where one places oneself, one cannot escape “being within the storms of life,” leaving readers with the lament that “within the jianghu, one cannot control oneself.”
Wang Dingjun, “Time Need Not Flow Backward”28
“Look how much the gun chamber resembles a womb
The bullet shouts once
And from then on has no returning journey”
“The gun chamber resembles a womb” is an extremely ingenious simile. The “bullet” fired from the chamber implicitly carries the deep semantic layer of “a baby being born.” The surface meaning is “bullet,” while the inner meaning is “baby.” This is a “surface-inner pun” in semantics. Once a baby is born, it becomes an independent individual and “from then on has no returning journey,” just as children grow up, establish their own families and careers, and rarely return home to visit their parents.
Jian Zhengzhen, “Politician”29
“You are a copper coin
Rolling and gleaming between fingers
Therefore you gradually
Lose all face”
The words in “pun” do not necessarily carry “satirical meaning.” One must infer this from the contextual environment surrounding the words. In this short poem, from the title “Politician,” the metaphor of the “copper coin,” and the metaphorical explanation “you gradually / lose all face,” readers discover that the “copper coin” possesses not only multiple meanings — such as “political ideals gradually becoming blurred, no longer adhering to principles and positions,” or “using any means necessary to achieve goals, becoming increasingly shameless” — but also, at the deeper semantic level, contains “criticism” and “satire” directed toward politicians who “lose all face.”
Yu Guangzhong, “White Jade Bitter Melon”30
Half-awake, half-turning, within the gentle light slowly
As though leisurely awakening from a great sleep of a thousand years
A melon calmly ripens
A bitter melon, no longer bitter and astringent…
Then you crawl toward that fertile earth
Using stem and root to seek her nourishing nectar
With painstaking sorrowful compassion painfully nursing forth
Is this infant misfortune or great fortune?
Concentrating the love of the entire continent into one bitter melon
Boots have trampled over it, horses’ hooves have trampled over it
The treads of heavy tanks have trampled over it
Yet not a single scar has ever been left…
Still carrying the lingering blessings of Mother Earth
Within a strange light beyond time
Ripening, a self-sufficient universe
Full and never fearing decay, an immortal fruit
Not produced upon immortal mountains, but produced among humankind
Long decayed, your former body, alas, long decayed
That hand which gave you rebirth, that skillful wrist
With countless glances and smiles skillfully ferried you across
Smiling at the soul circulating within white jade
A song, chanting that life once was melon and bitterness
Ferried across by eternity, becoming fruit and sweetness
This is a typical “object-chanting poem.” The “white jade bitter melon” in the poem actually possesses two layers of reference. On the textual surface, it chants and praises the “white jade bitter melon,” this precious ancient jade artifact of national-treasure status; the implied meaning, however, is connected to the actual object “bitter melon,” conveying how it was carved, and then how it underwent the vicissitudes of warfare and dynastic change. This layer of “historical anguish” belongs to semantic punning. Furthermore, the phrase “bitter melon” doubly refers to both “the bitterness of the bitter melon itself” and “the author’s sorrow,” thereby conveying the experience of modern China being ravaged and devastated by war. It contains profound concern for nation and homeland together with penetrating historical consciousness. This is sentence-level punning.
Yu Guangzhong, “Kua Fu”31
The warrior’s future lies not in last night, but in tomorrow morning
Running westward is futile; run back toward the East
Since you cannot catch up, then crash into it
This is a “character poem” that “borrows a subject to elaborate upon something else and carries hidden implications.” The protagonist is the legendary figure “Kua Fu” from remote antiquity, and the story basis is “Kua Fu Chasing the Sun.” The author clearly disapproves of Kua Fu’s stubborn obsession in insistently pursuing the setting sun. This poem rather possesses the meaning of “subverting” the legend. At the end of the poem, the poet uses the two puns “running westward” and “running eastward” to refer to the futility of blindly “Westernizing.” Returning to the “East” and embracing the cultural traditions of one’s own ancestors is the true way out. Furthermore, the poet teasingly says that since one clearly knows it is impossible to catch up with European and American civilization, one should simply “crash into it,” standing up to confront Western (European and American) popular culture. On the surface, the poem advises Kua Fu not to continue desperately pursuing the setting sun; deep down, however, it suggests to readers not to blindly pursue Western popular culture.
(4) Thematic Pun
Chen Qianwu, “Cryptogams”32
Every time they bloom
They are covered beneath shrub leaves
Unable to see sunlight
Not belonging to the same kind as the shrubs
Their branches cannot grow beyond melancholy
Unable to touch rain and dew
Someone suggested
Simply changing names and surnames
Blending into the grass
Allowing the fireflies to gain additional glory
Would that not kill two birds with one stone?
Some people, some people are such pitiful fellows
And they also say, in sorrowful deep nights
Every person always has
A destined star shining in the heavens
But flowers born in shady places
How could they possibly have a destined star?
The theme “cryptogams” itself already contains two different propositions: “the inherent characteristic of cryptogams: unable to bloom” and “the oppressed humble people: unable to see the light of day.” These two propositions possess both a “physical commonality” and a “commonality of fate,” sufficient to naturally arouse readers’ associations and enable them to infer the poet’s original hidden intention behind the theme.
In this poem, the “cryptogams” are not “innately” cryptogams. Rather, only after being ruthlessly covered and suppressed over a long period do they gradually degenerate into the state of “cryptogams.” This can be inferred from the clues in the opening stanza: “Every time they bloom / they are covered beneath shrub leaves / unable to see sunlight.”
Li Kuixian, “Resident Birds”33
My friends are still in prison
Unlike migratory birds
Pursuing seasons of freedom
Searching for new lands suited for survival
They would rather
Nourish the weak homeland in return
My friends are still in prison
Folding their wings into resident birds afflicted with aphasia
Abandoning language, and also
Abandoning memories of altitude, and also
Abandoning the training of drifting upward with the wind
They would rather ruminate upon the weakness of the homeland
My friends are still in prison
This poem, “Resident Birds,” is not an ordinary “object-chanting (imitative-object) poem.” It merely borrows the image of “resident birds” to express those who “would rather become resident birds deprived of freedom than drifting migratory birds.” This spirit embraces the land itself. In an interview with the Liberty Times, the author Li Kuixian explained his motivation for writing this poem: “Resident birds and migratory birds are opposites. Migratory birds travel far with the seasons in search of dwelling places; resident birds recognize their home and, regardless of how harsh the climate becomes, remain settled without migrating. I used these two kinds of birds with different habits to contrast and describe those writer friends who struggled for Taiwan’s nativist literature. They (such as Wang Tuo and Yang Qingchu) refused to leave Taiwan and insisted on dedicating themselves to this land, yet as a result were imprisoned, suffering hardship for their mother Taiwan.”34 This poem’s title is especially thought-provoking, because the thematic meaning itself already provides the contextual environment and associative clues for “pun.”
【Notes】
(1) Chen Wangdao, Fundamentals of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang, 1964, pp. 97, 99.
(2) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 434.
(3) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 208.
(4) Lu Jiaxiang and Chi Taining, chief editors, Illustrated Dictionary of Rhetorical Methods, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1991, p. 221.
(5) Liu Xie, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, annotated by Zhou Zhenfu, Taipei: Liren, 1984, p. 275.
(6) Quoted here from Huang Qingxuan’s Rhetoric, p. 434. Also see Wang Jichang’s translation Annotated Santayana Aesthetics, Taipei: Yeqiang, 1986, p. 220.
(8) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric (1991), Beijing: China Youth, p. 563.
(9) Wellek and Warren, Theory of Literature, translated by Wang Mengou and Xu Guoheng, Taipei: Zhiwen, 1985, p. 316.
(10) Wang Jichang, trans., Annotated Santayana Aesthetics, Taipei: Yeqiang, 1986, p. 218.
(11) Chen Wangdao, Fundamentals of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang, 1964, p. 101.
(12) Quoted from Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 564.
(13) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 434.
(14) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 564.
(15) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 563.
(16) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 564.
(17) Dong Jitang, Analysis of Rhetoric, Taipei: Wenshizhe, 1992, p. 268.
(18) Chen Wangdao, Fundamentals of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang, 1964, p. 101.
(19) Included in Chen Li, quoted from Selected Poems of Chen Li, Taipei: Chiuko, 2001, pp. 18–19.
(20) Quoted from Tan Zhen, The Eyes That Departed, Taipei: Wenshizhe, 2003, p. 21.
(21) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 439.
(22) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 564.
(23) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 440.
(24) Quoted from Lo Fu and Shen Zhifang, chief editors, Genesis Forty-Year Poetry Anthology, Taipei: Genesis Poetry Society, 1994, p. 217.
(25) Quoted from Sighing Notes, Taipei: China Times Culture, 1990, pp. 148–149.
(26) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 444.
(27) Cheng Weijun et al., chief editors, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 565.
(28) Quoted from Zhang Mo, ed., Short Poems, A Bedside Book, Taipei: Erya, 2007, p. 240.
(29) Quoted from Zhang Mo, ed., Short Poems, A Bedside Book, Taipei: Erya, 2007, p. 224.
(30) Quoted from White Jade Bitter Melon, Taipei: Earth Publishing, 1981, pp. 147–150.
(31) Quoted from Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong (Volume Two): 1982–1998, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp. 10–11.
(32) Quoted from Zheng Jiongming, ed., Mixed Chorus, Kaohsiung: Chunhui, 1992, p. 95.
(33) Quoted from Zheng Jiongming, ed., Mixed Chorus, Kaohsiung: Chunhui, 1992, p. 364.
(34) See Liberty Times Supplement, “Sunday Figures: Poet Li Kuixian Admires Resident Birds,” November 21, 2005.
