Chapter 7: “Using One to Replace Another”: Imagery-Based Synecdoche

（synecdoche）

Section 1: Definition and Function of Synecdoche

I. Synecdoche: Using One to Replace Another

The so-called “imagery-based synecdoche” refers to a situation in which the original image is “A” but is not directly stated; instead, it is replaced by another “B” image that has a close relationship with it. “Close relationship” includes physical relations such as “feature and whole entity,” “part and whole,” “material or tool and entity,” as well as psychological relations such as “concrete and abstract,” and logical relations such as “specific and general,” “proper name and generic term,” “using place name for product,” and “using author or symbol for the entity.”

II. Definition and Function of Synecdoche

“To refer to a thing, without directly stating its proper name, but instead using a name that has a very close relationship with it, is called synecdoche.”1 “Synecdoche is the use of the name of something that has a real, actual connection with the referent to replace the referent itself.”2 The use of “synecdoche” means not directly stating the name of the person or thing being described, but instead borrowing a related person or thing to replace it; this is also called “renaming” or “substitution.” Synecdoche is widely used and is generally well received by people.

Proper use of synecdoche can: (1) highlight the characteristics of the referent, making its image more vivid and lifelike. (2) create variation in language, making expression fresh and lively rather than dull and monotonous. (3) make language concise, implicit, and meaningful, or give it humorous and witty flavor. When using synecdoche, attention must be paid to ensuring that the substituting term is appropriate, representative, has a substitutive relationship, and can evoke association.

III. Historical Development of Synecdoche

In Chinese literary classics and poetic works, the use of the rhetorical device “synecdoche” has a long and widespread history. For example: “The iron armor has been stationed far away in hard service for a long time; the jade chopsticks should weep after parting. The young wife in the southern city is heartbroken; the soldier in the northern frontier of Ji only turns back in vain.” (Tang Dynasty, Gao Shi, “Song of Yan”〈燕歌行〉). “Iron armor” replaces the frontier soldier wearing armor; “jade chopsticks” refers to the soldier’s wife who wears jade chopsticks as hair ornaments. In the third and fourth lines, “soldier” and “young wife” are the referents, while the first two lines use synecdoche in the form of “part for whole” to avoid repetition with the later lines.

Another example: “I only wish people live long; we may share the moonlight even from a thousand miles apart.” (Song Dynasty, Su Shi, “Prelude to Water Melody”〈水調歌頭〉). “Moonlight” replaces the moon; it is also a way of expression to avoid repeating the same word.

Another example: “May I ask the curtain-lowering maid, she replies that the begonias are still the same. Do you know? Do you know? It should be that the green is lush and the red is fading.” (Song Dynasty, Li Qingzhao, “Like a Dream”〈如夢令〉). “Curtain-lowering maid” refers to a maid or servant; “green” stands for green leaves, and “red” stands for red flowers.

Section 2: Theoretical Foundations of Synecdoche

I. Psychological Basis of Synecdoche

The psychological basis of synecdoche is “novelty of stimulus,” namely so-called “innovation and distinctiveness.” Human beings often become numb to repeated stimuli; thus the ancients said: “Entering a room full of orchids, one does not smell its fragrance after a long time; entering a fish market, one does not smell its stench after a long time.” This phenomenon arises from “passive adaptation” to stimuli. In order for stimuli to effectively evoke human response, novelty must be emphasized, since novel stimuli are more likely than habitual ones to attract “attention.”

II. Aesthetic Basis of Synecdoche

The aesthetic basis of synecdoche is “associative relation.” There must be a certain specific relationship between the referent and the substituting term; only then can the substituting term provide sufficient clues for readers to easily identify the hidden referent.

“Even if the described object has no similarity with other things, as long as there is an inseparable relationship between them, the author may use the name of the related object to replace the described object. Such substitution is called synecdoche.”3

III. Distinction Between Synecdoche and Metaphor

“‘Synecdoche’ is very close to ‘metaphor.’ Metaphor uses one thing (A) to explain another thing (B); synecdoche uses one thing (A) to replace another thing (B).”4 In synecdoche, the referent and the substituting term do not share similarity, but they have a close relational connection; A and B are essentially the same entity. In metaphor, the tenor and vehicle share similarity, but A and B are actually different things. Therefore, in synecdoche, terms such as “like” or “is” (metaphorical linking verbs) cannot be used, nor can the referent be explicitly restated.

Section 3: Semantic Structure of Synecdoche

Synecdoche “only presents the substituting term and does not present the referent. However, the substituting term must have a real direct or indirect relationship with the referent, and must clearly indicate it.”5 The semantic structure of synecdoche includes the “referent” and two “substituting terms,” as well as their relational (referential) connection. In use, the “referent” does not appear in the text, and the substituting term replaces it. The substituting term and the referent have a close relationship; this may include the substituting term being a part, material, tool, accessory, or companion of the referent; or it may represent the referent’s main characteristics; or it may indicate the referent’s place of origin or location; or it may refer to the author or alternative name of the referent.

Although synecdoche and “metaphorical synecdoche” (metonymic metaphor) are similar in form, both involve substitution, they differ in two respects: (1) In metaphor, there is no actual connection between the “vehicle” and the “tenor”; only similarity in one aspect is required. In synecdoche, the “substituting term” and the “referent” must have a close relationship; although they appear to be two things, they are actually the same entity, and the basis of substitution is relational connection. (2) Metaphor is “using A to describe B,” containing implied comparison and focusing on figurative expression; synecdoche is “using A to replace B,” containing substitution and focusing on direct reference.6

Regarding the distinction between metaphor and synecdoche, mainland scholars Yang Chunlin and Liu Fan propose a similar criterion: “Metaphor is based on certain similarities between two different essences (vehicle and tenor), connecting them through association, i.e., ‘making a comparison’; synecdoche is based on the inseparable internal and external relational connection between two things (substituting term and referent), directly replacing one with the other. The similarity in metaphor is temporary and arises through human association; the relational connection in synecdoche is fixed and objectively real. Metaphor emphasizes comparison; synecdoche emphasizes reference.”7

Section 4: Forms of Expression of Synecdoche

Synecdoche is divided into two major types: “side substitution” and “mutual substitution.”

(1) Side substitution: This refers to using an accompanying or subordinate element of the referent to replace the referent itself.8 In usage, side substitution appears frequently in writing. “Side substitution is the relationship between accompanying things and main things. In principle, either may substitute for the other. However, in practice, it is more common to use accompanying things to replace main things; using main things to replace accompanying things is rare, which is why it is called ‘side substitution.’”9 Side substitution is “a form of synecdoche in which accompanying elements replace main elements. The accompanying element is the substituting term, and the main element is the referent.”10

(2) Mutual substitution: This refers to cases in which the object described and the substituting object can replace each other; A can replace B, and under different circumstances, B can also replace A.11

Side substitution can be further divided into the following categories:

1. Using human-related objects or symbols to replace people or groups of people

For example: “Those wearing fine silk robes do not die of hunger; scholars’ caps often harm their own lives.” (Tang Dynasty, Du Fu, “Gift to Vice Minister Wei”〈贈韋左丞詩〉). “Fine silk robes” refers to children of wealthy families wearing luxurious clothing, and here it broadly refers to the wealthy class; in ancient times, men wore caps at the age of twenty as a coming-of-age ritual, so “cap” here extends to mean scholars. Another example: “The vermilion gates smell of wine and meat; on the road lie frozen bones of the dead.” (Du Fu, “On Leaving the Capital to Fengxian County”〈自京赴奉先縣詠懷五百字〉). Gates painted red are called “vermilion gates,” a symbol of wealthy households in the Tang Dynasty. Another example: “Swearing to wipe out the Xiongnu without regard for one’s life; five thousand soldiers in fur and brocade perish in foreign dust.” (Tang Dynasty, Chen Tao, “Song of Longxi”〈隴西行〉). Ancient soldiers wore fox-fur hats and embroidered clothing; thus “fur and brocade” refers to soldiers.

Jiang Xun, “To Li Shuangze”12

You see that young teacher,

drawing on the blackboard a leaf of begonia

“This is the Great Wall, this is the Taihang;
turbulent are the Yellow River and the Yangtze River.”

The shape of China’s map resembles a “begonia leaf,” just as Taiwan’s shape resembles a “sweet potato”; both use shape as a symbol. “Drawing a begonia leaf on the blackboard” means drawing the map of China.

Yang Mu, “Moonlight Song”13

In a faded tent

Armor once was so noisy

After the battle, jackals become scattered stones

       armor becomes dust

 

         decayed grass becomes fireflies

You find yourself awake on a sunken bed

“Armor” refers to the clothing of soldiers; here it refers to “our soldiers,” a case of “using a symbol of a group to refer to the group itself.” “Jackals” refers to cruel and brutal enemy troops, a case of “using a characteristic of a group to represent the group.” Both are synecdoche, but based on different sub-principles and belong to different categories.

1. Using characteristics of people or things to replace the whole

For example, in Li Bai’s poem “To Meng Haoran”: “With rosy cheeks he abandoned rank and title; with white hair he lay among pine clouds.” “Rosy cheeks” refers to the facial color of youth; “white hair” refers to the hair color of old age. Another example, Du Fu’s “Ascending the Height”: “Endless falling leaves rustle down; the endless Yangtze River rolls on.” “Falling wood” refers to falling leaves, using “wood” to replace leaves. Another example, Su Shi’s “Prelude to the Red Cliff”: “The great river flows east; its waves have washed away countless heroic figures.” “Great river” here refers to the Yangtze River and its mighty, continuous flow.

Yu Guangzhong, “Climbing the Great Wall – Mutianyu Section”14

The battlements stand in strict order; countless past dynasties

Two thousand years of gain and loss, all

Flow helplessly through the gaps of the parapet

Only you remain, beacon fires silent, watchtowers empty

Still coiled along the spine of countless mountains

A flying, ungovernable ancient dragon

A monument of immeasurable length, witnessing…

“Ancient dragon” and “monument” share the image of the Great Wall winding continuously along mountains and ridges. The poet describes the Great Wall as an ancient dragon that cannot fly away or swim away, and as an immeasurably long monument bearing witness to the suffering and vicissitudes of modern China.

Yá Xian〈Babylon〉15

Sprinkling grape wine upon a jujube-wood guillotine

Filling beggars’ iron bowls with gold coins

Adding oil and ointment to the bronze lamps in the temples of the gods

Lighting torches at the observatory, summoning the lost constellation Cygnus

I am a white-haired priest

“White hair” is a characteristic of elderly people’s hair color; here it replaces the adjective “aged.” The use of “synecdoche” is not limited to concrete nouns (such as “white head: elderly person,” “red face: young and beautiful woman”); sometimes, out of grammatical (word-order) necessity, it may also replace adjectives. Of course, in such cases, the original meaning of the noun is still included.

1. Using the author, place of origin, or alternative name of a thing to replace the thing itself

For example, in Cao Cao of the Three Kingdoms’ “Short Song Style”: “With sorrow and emotion filling my heart, worries are hard to forget. What can relieve my sorrow? Only Dukang.” “Dukang” is a personal name, famous for brewing fine wine. In the middle volume of Yi Shizhen’s Records of Langhuan, it says: “Dukang made wine; therefore wine is called Dukang.” Another example is Lu You’s Song Dynasty “Poem on Plum Blossoms at Seventy-Eight”: “From what place could I transform into a thousand million bodies? A single plum blossom, one Lu Fangweng.” “Fangweng” is Lu You’s pen name. Another example is Ouyang Xiu’s Song Dynasty “Immortal Intent”: “The wind is high over the vast sea, worrying that swallows are far away; in spring the Fusang tree ages, remembering silkworm sleep.” “Fusang” is an ancient country name, later used as a designation for Japan because many hibiscus trees grew there.

Yu Guangzhong〈Letter Across the Water〉16

Long wind, distant clouds; from seven hundred li away, all one sees is a water journey

Across the water, I gaze windingly at an immortal

The island is Penglai; the gull is not the Green Bird

Air mail stationery carries days of aching gazing

Taiwan in ancient times was called “Ryukyu” and “Penglai”; Portuguese sailors called it “Formosa,” just as Han settlers in Taiwan called the mainland “Tangshan.” These are all alternative names of place names. The poet, separated by the Taiwan Strait, communicates spiritually with the legendary immortal on Penglai Island; through dialogue with the immortal, he subtly conveys longing for friends on the island.

Yu Guangzhong〈At the Tower〉17

After three cups of Shaoxing wine have just gone down

A surge of heroic spirit rises

Everyone at the table looks at one another; all wanderers turn into heroes

“Shaoxing” in the poem refers to Shaoxing wine produced by Taiwan’s Tobacco and Wine Monopoly Bureau. The Monopoly Bureau used “Shaoxing” as the name of the wine, borrowing the fame of Shaoxing’s famous local wine for marketing purposes; it does not refer to wine produced in Shaoxing itself. Nevertheless, here it can still be regarded as synecdoche, namely “using place of origin to represent the thing.”

1. Using the material or tool of a thing to replace the thing itself

For example, “At Mount Xunyang, a remote place with no music, throughout the year no sounds of silk and bamboo are heard” (Bai Juyi, “Pipa Song with Preface,” Tang Dynasty). “Silk and bamboo” are materials used to make musical instruments; here they stand for musical instruments, and by extension, for music itself. Another example: “After years of war and chaos, the countryside is desolate; flesh and blood are scattered along the roads” (Bai Juyi, “Thoughts on the Moon”). “Halberd and spear” are weapons held by soldiers; here they stand for “war.” Another example: “I have always heard of such a person; his brush and ink are extremely sharp and extraordinary. Separated by two thousand li, how could I meet and talk with him?” (Lu You, “Reply to Xu Zhipu’s Gifted Poems”). “Brush and ink” are tools for writing and painting; here they stand for “literature.”

Zhang Cuo〈Net Reality〉18

Frowning coldly at the world—

All for the sake of one word: love

Thus prepared to exhaust a lifetime of brush and ink—

To search for an accidental instant

“Brush and ink” here replaces the poet’s “poetic and literary works,” a case of “using tools to represent the thing.” Qing Dynasty poetry critic Zhang Chao (Xin Zhai) once said in Dream Shadows: “The word ‘emotion’ is what maintains the world; the word ‘talent’ is what adorns heaven and earth.”19 Since ancient times, countless literati have expressed in their brush and ink precisely human emotions between men and women. The poet Zhang Cuo boldly declares that he too is a “lover by nature.”

Du Shisan〈Legend〉20

All the fishing lights across the river suddenly awaken

All the seabirds in the sky circle downward to listen

Following the fall of a bitter, burning tear

In the northern sky rises a brilliant new star

All the lights on the shore are extinguished one by one

All fishing boats at sea drift away in succession

“Fishing lights” and “lamplights” are both substituting terms, but the “original referents” they represent are not the same, and the basis of synecdoche is also different. “Fishing lights” are indispensable equipment on fishing boats; here they stand for “fishing boats,” a case of “using tools or materials to represent the thing.” “Lamplights” are used in every household at night; here they stand for “households,” a case of “using symbols to represent the thing.”

(1) Mutual substitution: further divided into the following situations

1. Mutual substitution between part and whole

For example, in Yue Fei’s “Song of the River—Full River Red”: “Do not wait idly; your youthful head will turn white, leaving only empty sorrow.” Here “head” is used to replace “hair,” and by extension refers to “age,” “years,” or “time.” Another example: Wen Tingyun’s “Looking at the South River”: “After washing and dressing, she leans alone on the tower overlooking the river; countless sails pass, yet none is the one.” “A thousand sails” describes countless ships; here it stands for “many vessels.”

Yu Guangzhong〈Climbing the Great Wall – Mutianyu Section〉21

East reaches the vast sea, west runs to the edge of the sky

These distant two thousand kilometers of border sorrow, could it be

All pressed into these merciless granite bricks

Square-shaped homesickness, heavy and weighty

Layer upon layer, brick upon brick

Built so steeply, so precipitously?

The hands that built it—calloused ones—have long since let go

And the eyes that guarded it—sleepless ones—have already closed

“Hands that build the wall” refers to the laborers who constructed the Great Wall across successive dynasties; “eyes that guard the wall” refers to the soldiers stationed there in different periods. “Hands” and “eyes” are parts used to represent the whole. Standing on the Great Wall, the poet reflects on past and present, evoking the laborers and soldiers of history, revealing a spatial-temporal consciousness of rise and decline.

Yá Xian〈Song Without Score〉22

Let’s fall in love like pigeons,

Casually pin a flower onto the lapel,

Dance those four-step dances that make no sense but are joyful,

Embrace—equal in weight to gravity itself!

Spin—let skirts lift all aesthetics into motion!

Ah, after May, there may be a period of melancholy.

(Oh, Nana, don’t talk to me about Zola)

“Skirt” is part of women’s clothing; here in the poem it replaces the image of “young girl,” a case of “using part to represent the whole.” These lines are full of youthful energy—love, dancing, joyful embraces and spinning movements, evoking longing and admiration.

Zheng Chouyu〈Return Song〉23

Every sail will set course toward

The Bay of Spezia

Like a weary sun

Setting there, I know

Every cloud will bow and kiss

The shoals of the Miluo River, like shallow whirlpools

There it will sink in rotation…

“Sail” is part of a ship; here it stands for “ship,” a case of “part for whole.” The poet says he no longer wishes to drift at sea; he wishes to return, like sails returning to the Bay of Spezia where Shelley disappeared, and clouds bowing to kiss the Miluo River where Qu Yuan drowned himself. The poet’s return is likened to these two poets’ destinies: “where clouds and sails disappear / my lamp will rise there…” (see final section of〈Return Song〉).

1. Mutual substitution between specific and general

For example, in Wen Tingyun’s “Looking at the South River”: “Who can I ask? Lian Po is already old; can he still eat?” “Lian Po” was a famous general of the Warring States period; originally a specific figure, here it is used generically to refer to “anyone who refuses to accept old age.” Another example: Bai Juyi’s “Crying of the Kind Crow at Night”: “Kind crow, kind crow; among birds, the Zeng Shen.” “Zeng Shen” (Zengzi) was known for filial piety; here it becomes a general term for “filial sons.” Another example: Li Qingzhao’s “Drunken Flower Shade”: “Do not say it does not move the soul; as the west wind lifts the curtain, people are thinner than chrysanthemums.” “Chrysanthemum” refers generally to yellow flowers, but here specifically to chrysanthemums.

Yu Guangzhong〈Celebrating Halley〉24

1984, the modern prophecy has just passed

Once again you arrive from ancient legend

Dragging the shadow of a broom, how pitiful

Fearful humanity is helpless and without appeal

How many more threats can it endure?

Human-made disasters on earth—how can they be blamed on natural calamities?

If you truly are a broom, then sweep

Sweep away the omens of disaster from our hearts

“1984” is a novel written by British political satirist George Orwell, a classic of dystopian literature. In Taiwanese folk tradition, Halley’s Comet is called the “broom star,” because its tail resembles a broom. The poet, adapting to common usage, accepts this designation. In the poem, “broom” replaces “Halley’s Comet,” a case of “using the general term to replace the specific.”

For example, in Song Dynasty Liu Yong’s “Rain Bell”: “The cold cicadas cry mournfully; facing the evening pavilion; the sudden rain has just stopped.” Here “cicada” replaces cicada sounds. Another example, Li Qingzhao’s “Like a Dream”: “I ask the curtain-rolling person; she says the begonias are still the same. Do you know? Do you know? It should be lush green leaves and fading red flowers.” “Green” refers to green leaves; “red” refers to red flowers. These poetic examples all involve mutual substitution between concrete and abstract images, also called “mutual substitution between reality and emptiness.”

1. Mutual substitution between the concrete and the abstract (reality–emptiness mutual substitution)

Zhou Mengdie〈May〉25

This is the season when “the serpent” and “the apple” are most rampant

The sun rises night after night from the Black Sea

Epicurus drinks bitter wormwood wine

Beneath the pillow of pure reason’s critique

A petal of camellia is buried

This passage uses the two concrete images “serpent” and “apple” to replace the abstract concept of “temptation.” The author does not directly state “temptation,” but instead uses the biblical allusion of the “serpent” and the “apple” to trigger readers’ reflection and associations, thereby increasing the interest of reading. The allusion comes from the “Garden of Eden” story in the Bible, in which the serpent tempts Adam and Eve to eat the apple, causing them to gain knowledge of the matters between man and woman, thus violating the commandment; Adam and Eve are expelled from the Garden of Eden. This story is familiar to most readers.

Zheng Chouyu〈Sailor’s Knife〉26

The tropical threads of affection, like ivy

A wave of the hand is enough to sever them

Waves sink the green island swaying like a maiden

Waves sink the stars of half the night

Waves release a journey of wind and rain

In the line “sink the green island swaying like a maiden,” the “green” in the poem refers to “green trees” and “green forests”; here it is the use of the abstract to replace the concrete. The sailor is sailing away from that island full of green vegetation; though he feels reluctant to part, he is nonetheless helpless, and can only pretend to be free and unrestrained, claiming to sever emotional threads and sail toward unknown winds and rain.

Notes

(1) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: National, 2004, p.83.
(2) Cheng Weijun et al. (eds.), Comprehensive Dictionary of Rhetoric, Taipei: Jianhong, 1998, p.534.
(3) Chen Wangdao, Foundations of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguan, 1964, p.84.
(4) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p.356.
(5) Cheng Weijun et al. (eds.), Comprehensive Dictionary of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p.534.
(6) Cheng Weijun et al. (eds.), Comprehensive Dictionary of Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p.534.
(7) Yang Chunlin & Liu Fan (eds.), Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Art, Shaanxi People’s Publishing House, 1996, p.64.
(8) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: National, 2004, p.85.
(9) Chen Wangdao, Foundations of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguan, 1964, p.84.
(10) Yang Chunlin & Liu Fan (eds.), Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Art, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p.65.
(11) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: National, 2004, p.92.
(12) Reprinted from Zhang Cuo (ed.), Island of a Thousand Songs, Taipei: Erya, 1987, pp.392–401.
(13) Reprinted from Yang Mu, Journey of the Big Dipper, Taipei: Erya, 1978, pp.169–171.
(14) Reprinted from Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong (Volume II): 1982–1998, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.200–203.
(15) Reprinted from Ya Xian, Collected Poems of Ya Xian, Taipei: Hongfan Bookstore, 1981, pp.99–101.
(16) Reprinted from Yu Guangzhong, Struggling with Eternity, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.99–100.
(17) Reprinted from Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong (Volume I): 1949–1981, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.280–281.
(18) Reprinted from Zhang Cuo, Erroneous Sonnets, Taipei: Times, 1981, pp.142–144.
(19) Qing Dynasty, Zhang Chao, Dream Shadows, Taipei: Wenguo Publishing House, 1995, p.156.
(20) Reprinted from Du Shisan, Notes of Sighs, Taipei: Times Culture, 1990, pp.116–117.
(21) Reprinted from Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong (Volumes II): 1982–1998, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.200–203.
(22) Reprinted from Ya Xian (1981), Collected Poems of Ya Xian, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.78–80.
(23) Reprinted from Zheng Chouyu, Collected Poems of Zheng Chouyu I: 1951–1968, Taipei: Hongfan, 1979, pp.4–5.
(24) Reprinted from Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong (Volume II): 1982–1998, Taipei: Hongfan, 1981, pp.77–82.
(25) Reprinted from PC Home Personal News Station, webmaster Whale Whale, http://mypaper.pchome.com.tw/board/B/index.htm?s_id=whalie#
(26) Reprinted from Zheng Chouyu, Collected Poems of Zheng Chouyu I: 1951–1968, Taipei: Hongfan, 1979, p.98.