Chapter 7: Augmentative Form — Insertion (Xiangqian / Embedding)
Section 1: Embedding (鑲嵌)
1. Definition and Function of Embedding
“Any rhetorical method in which, at the beginning, end, or middle of a sentence, function words, numerals, specific characters, or synonymous/antonymous words are deliberately inserted in order to lengthen the sentence and make its meaning more vivid and its rhetorical flavor richer.”¹
“In a specific linguistic context, it is also a rhetorical device in which polysyllabic words and fixed phrases are deliberately split apart and specific words are inserted, creating a mixed textual structure; it is also called word-inlay, character-inlay, augmentation-inlay, or filler-inlay.”²
“Embedding” refers to the insertion of decorative lexical items that extend syllabic length, complicate sentence structure, and thereby imply an additional layer of meaning.
The rhetorical device of “embedding” developed from classical prose and classical poetry. Although modern poets also occasionally engage in “word games,” under the mainstream modernist tendency of free verse—which rejects rhyme schemes and breaks formal regularity (line count, word count, meter)—most modern poets do not engage in highly technical devices such as “antithesis” or “head-and-tail embedding.” Only a few poets with strong rhetorical mastery from earlier generations occasionally employ embedding techniques, as seen in works such as Zhou Mengdie’s Embrace of Emptiness, Xin Yu’s Song of Soil, Luo Fu’s Untitled Poem Dedicated to Wang Wei, and Xiang Ming’s In the Depths I See a Cherry Still There. These works show considerable ingenuity in formal design. However, in the overall field of modern poetry, the importance and frequency of “embedding” have significantly declined compared with earlier traditions.
2. Historical Origins of Embedding
In poetry and opera that emphasize rhythm and phonology, four-character structures frequently employ embedded characters. Otherwise, specific words are inserted into fixed sentence patterns, or embedded within particular word orders in poetic lines.
For example, in the Ancient Ballads: Lotus-Picking Song:
“South of the river one may pick lotus; lotus leaves grow lush and thick! Fish play among the lotus leaves. Fish play east of the lotus leaves, fish play west of the lotus leaves, fish play south of the lotus leaves, fish play north of the lotus leaves.”
This embeds the directional terms “east, west, south, north” into a fixed syntactic pattern.
Another example, Du Fu’s Visiting a Friend:
“South of the cottage, north of the cottage, all is spring water; only flocks of gulls come daily.”
Here, “south of the cottage, north of the cottage” is a “sandwiched-character embedding,” a common four-character structural embedding.
Another example from Du Fu, Replying to the Rites-Day Poem Sent by Former Governor Gao of Shu:
“Who can still speak of east, west, south, north? With white hair, I remain alone in a drifting boat…”
Here the directional terms “east, west, south, north” are respectively inserted into the poem.
Another example, Yuan dynasty Qiao Ji, Double Tone — Water Fairy — Searching for Plum Blossoms:
“Before winter and after winter, through several villages; north of the stream and south of the stream, my shoes covered in frost; at the treetops and under the trees, on Lonely Hill…”
The poet travels through winter landscapes, crossing north and south of streams, his feet covered in frost. He searches tree by tree, determined not to rest until finding plum blossoms. The moment he finds them, overwhelming joy naturally follows. This persistence and full emotional investment are fully embodied in the poem. One could even say Qiao Ji is perhaps the most devoted “snow-searching plum seeker” of all time. The piece uses three sets of embedding structures, using concrete words (winter, stream, tree). The repetition of the first character carries meaning, while the second character functions as rhythmic repetition. The four-character fixed structure enhances musicality in performance.
From the Song dynasty onward, poets such as Su Shi, Ming dynasty Tang Yin (Tang Bohu), and Wang Yangming also composed “embedded-character poems” (hidden-word style). These place characters at the beginning, middle, or end of lines in varying positions; such techniques were also widely used in poetic couplets.
The most common form is the “acrostic poem.” For example, Su Shi’s Reduced-character Magnolia:
“Zheng is hospitable, allowing me to remove my cap before the cup… Gao and Ying… From this onward in southern Xu, the moonlit lake…”
Each line begins with a hidden character, forming the phrase “Zheng Rong Luo Ji, Gao Ying Cong Liang.”
It is said that when Su Shi returned to the court from Hangzhou, Governor Lin Zizhong hosted a banquet in Jingkou. Courtesans Zheng Rong and Gao Ying submitted petitions requesting release from their status. Su Shi, unable to decide formally, composed this poem as approval for their liberation and marriage.
During the Qianlong era, scholar Li Diaoyuan encountered literati discussing poetry. He composed:
“Li Bai’s poetic fame lasts thousands of years; refined rhythm and elegant style are exceptionally high…”
The first characters form “Li Diaoyuan also.”
A famous Yuan dynasty example is Guan Hanqing’s Wangjiang Pavilion, where Tan Ji’er expresses love in a poem:
“If I may entrust spring feelings to falling flowers, drifting to the ends of the earth…”
The hidden message reads “wish to follow you.” White Shizhong replies with another poem, forming “do not fail you.”
Another example is Tang Yin’s Xijiang Moon, embedding the phrase “I willingly become your servant for Qiu Xiang.”
Section 2: Structural Forms of Embedding
1. Basic Structural Form
Embedding consists of two elements:
- Base text (benyu): the original word or phrase that is split apart
- Embedded words (xiangqian ci): the inserted lexical elements
2. Main Types of Base Text and Embedded Words
(1) Base text as parallel disyllabic words
The base text is often a parallel or coordinated disyllabic structure.
For example, Li Yu’s Beauty Yu:
“Spring flowers and autumn moon—when will it end?”
Here, “flowers and moon” is the base text, while “spring and autumn” are embedded elements.
Another example, Yu Qian’s Ode to Lime:
“Thousands of strikes and ten thousand blows out of the mountains; fierce fire burning is taken lightly…”
Here numerical embedding occurs, and in another line “broken bones and crushed body” is split and embedded.
Another example, Lu You’s Tour of West Mountain Village:
“Mountains overlap and waters multiply; doubting there is no road; willows dark and flowers bright, another village appears.”
This interleaves “mountains/waters” and “overlap/multiply,” forming a highly expressive structure. It is similar to reduplication devices such as “clean-clean” vs “completely clean,” “scattered-scattered” vs “disordered.”
(2) Base text as polysyllabic phrases
The base text may be a longer phrase, while single-syllable embedded words are inserted, forming “head-and-tail embedding.”
For example, Mulan Poem:
“East market buys horses, west market buys saddles, south market buys reins, north market buys whips.”
Directional words are inserted into a fixed structure.
(3) Embedded words as numbers, function words, or content words
Words may be split and recombined using numbers or lexical items.
For example, Bai Juyi’s Song of the Pipa:
“Thousand calls, ten thousand summons, she finally appears…”
Here “thousand and ten thousand” are embedded into “calls and summons.”
Ordinary words, once interwoven, produce a sonorous rhythm, distinctive structure, and heightened meaning. When phonological features such as alliteration or rhyme overlap occur, the effect is even more musical.
Section 3: Manifestational Forms of Embedding
Different scholars classify embedding differently:
- Huang Qingxuan: “inlaid characters,” “embedded characters,” “augmentation words,” “paired words,” and “combination words”
- Yang Chunlin: “word-inlay,” “sentence-inlay,” “interwoven inlay,” “numerical inlay”
- Lu Jiaxiang: “single embedding,” “interwoven embedding,” “head-and-tail embedding”
- Cheng Weijun: “sandwich embedding,” “interwoven embedding,” “acrostic embedding”
The author synthesizes these into four categories:
- Sandwich embedding
- Interwoven embedding
- Head-and-tail embedding
- Augmentative/paired embedding
1. Sandwich Embedding
Function words, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs are inserted into nouns or other lexical structures to modify meaning.
Example: Xi Murong, Bitter Fruit
The word “suddenly” is inserted into “bright/dark,” forming a sandwich structure.
Another example: Xi Murong, Difficulty
The word “slightly” is inserted into “tipsy/drunk,” limiting intensity.
2. Interwoven Embedding
Two parallel disyllabic words are interwoven to form a combined structure, enhancing rhythm and meaning.
Example: Yu Guangzhong, The Prodigal Returns
“White walls, red tiles” becomes interwoven into a vivid image through structural crossing.
Another example: Luo Fu, Severed Finger Notes
“Shirt/skirt” interwoven with “white/black” creates a striking visual contrast.
Some fixed idioms like “heartless and ruthless” are not considered embedding; “not speaking, not saying” may be treated as sandwich embedding.
Chapter 7 Expansion Word Form: Embedding
Section 1 Embedding
- Definition and Function of Embedding
“Any rhetorical method that deliberately inserts function words, numerals, specific words, or synonymous or antonymous words at the beginning, end, or middle of a sentence in order to lengthen the sentence and make its meaning clearer and its stylistic interest richer”1, “a rhetorical method in a specific context that deliberately splits polysyllabic words and fixed phrases and inserts specific words, forming a mixed textual structure; also called embedded-character insertion, embedded-character composition, augmentation, or padding insertion.”2
“Embedding” refers to inserting words with ornamental qualities, extending syllabic length, making sentence structure more complex, thereby implying another layer of meaning. The rhetorical device of “embedding” developed from classical prose and classical poetry. Although modern new-poetry writers also engage in some “verbal games,” under the dominant modernist tendency of new poetry that does not emphasize rhyme and breaks formal regularity (line count, word count, meter), most new-poetry writers do not engage with highly difficult techniques such as “parallel pairing” or “head-and-tail embedding.” Only a small number of earlier poets with relatively advanced rhetorical skill occasionally used embedding devices in their works, such as Zhou Mengdie’s “Embrace of Emptiness,” Xin Yu’s “Song of Soil,” Luo Fu’s “Untitled Poem Dedicated to Wang Wei,” and Xiang Ming’s “Seeing a Cherry Still Exists in the Depths.” These works show considerable ingenuity in formal design. However, in terms of new poetry as a whole, the importance and frequency of the “embedding” device have significantly declined compared with earlier periods.
- Historical Origin of Embedding
In poetry and drama that emphasize rhythm and phonology, four-character patterns often make greater use of embedded-character techniques. Otherwise, embedding occurs by inserting special words into fixed sentence patterns, or embedding specific lexical items within a particular word order in a verse.
For example, in the “Ancient Yuefu · Picking Lotus Song”:
“South of the river one may pick lotus, how lush are the lotus leaves! Fish play among the lotus leaves. Fish play east of the lotus leaves, fish play west of the lotus leaves, fish play south of the lotus leaves, fish play north of the lotus leaves.”
Here, the four directional terms “east, west, south, north” are inserted into a fixed pattern.
Another example is Du Fu’s “Guest Arrival”:
“South of the house, north of the house, all is spring water; only flocks of gulls come daily.”
The south and north of the thatched cottage are filled with spring water, and only gulls fly in groups every day. “South of the house, north of the house” uses “interlocking-character embedding,” a common four-character embedding structure.
Another example from Du Fu, “Replying to the Rhymed Poem Sent by Former Governor Gao of Shuzhou on Human Day,” excerpted:
“Who can still speak of east, west, south, or north? With white hair, a lonely boat, and illness alone remaining. Far away I salute the Northern Star amid bandits; I wish to pour out the East Sea to cleanse heaven and earth. The western frontier is filled with barbarian invasions; the southward flight of officials is in chaos. Playing the zither mourns the imperial son even now; where can I seek the court gate while lifting my robe?”
Here the directional words “east, west, south, north” are separately embedded into the poem.
Another example is Yuan dynasty Qiao Ji’s “Double Tune · Water Fairy · Seeking Plum Blossoms”:
“Before winter and after winter, several villages; north of the stream and south of the stream, two pairs of frost-covered feet; on trees and under trees, on Lonely Mountain. From where comes the cold wind and fragrance? Suddenly meeting her in plain white robes. After sobering from wine, cold shock like a dream; flute sounds bitter, spring sorrow breaks the heart; pale moon in dim yellow light.”
The poet travels through villages before and after winter, across north and south of streams, feet covered with frost and snow, searching everywhere among trees and mountains with unwavering determination to find plum blossoms. Once found, the joy is self-evident. This persistence and full immersion are noteworthy. Such devotion makes Qiao Ji arguably the most obsessive “snow-travel plum seeker” of all time. This short lyric uses three sets of embedded words, all embedding real lexical items (winter, stream, tree). The repeated first syllables carry meaning, while the second syllables are rhythmic repetition. Because they form a fixed four-character structure, they better conform to rhythmic requirements.
After the Song dynasty, poets such as Su Shi of the Song, Tang Yin of the Ming, and Wang Yangming also wrote “embedded-character poems” (hidden-word patterns), placing words within poems at the beginning, middle, or end. These were often used in exchange poems and antithetical couplets.
The most common form is the “acrostic poem.” For example, Su Shi’s “Reduced Character Magnolia”:
“Zheng is hospitable, allowing me to remove my cap before the wine cup. Words flow like wind, reputation is worthy of respect. Gao Shan Bai Lao, jade-like bones and ice-like body—how could they endure aging? From now on in South Xu, on a clear night the wind and moon fill the lake.”
Each line hides a character at its beginning, forming the phrase “Zheng Rong Luo Ji, Gao Ying Cong Liang.” It is said that when Su Shi was recalled to the capital, passing Jingkou and Runzhou, Governor Lin Zizhong hosted a banquet. Among the guests were courtesans Zheng Rong and Gao Ying, who requested release from registry to become commoners. Su Shi wrote this poem approving their request, since such approval required official authorization.
During the Qianlong reign, Li Diaoyuan went to the capital for examinations. In a literary gathering, others asked his name, and he composed a poem:
“Li Bai’s poetic fame lasts for thousands of years; his refined rhythm and elegance are especially outstanding. Many writers of Ming and Qing times all bow before him.”
The first characters form “Li Diaoyuan also.”
A famous example is from Guan Hanqing’s “Wangjiang Pavilion”: Tan Jier and Bai Shizhong were deeply in love. Tan expressed affection in a poem:
“I wish to send my spring feeling with falling flowers, drifting with the wind to the ends of the earth; if you understand the phoenix line, the abandoned wife will return to a winehouse.”
Bai Shizhong was delighted because the initial characters read “Wish to follow you away.” He responded with a poem:
“The woman at the stove is as beautiful as a flower; I do not forget the earlier zither-heart vow; I fail tonight’s line beneath the flowers; you must pity that I still have no home.”
The hidden phrase is “Do not fail you.”
Another example is Ming poet Tang Yin’s “West River Moon”:
“I hear the Bodhisattva of the West, for people, cuts off worldly desire. Autumn moon shines upon humble dwellings; fragrance fills the meditation hall and path. Counting fingers, after the meeting at Spirit Mountain, purple bamboo grows into forest. Boys and girls worship Guanyin; bustling servants are not concerned with glory or decline.”
This poem sequentially embeds the phrase “I for autumn fragrance willingly become a servant.”
- Structural Forms of Embedding
I. Basic Structural Form
The structure of embedding consists of “base text” and “embedded words.” The former is the original word being split, and the latter is the inserted element.
II. Main Types of Base Text and Embedded Words
(1) Base text as parallel disyllabic words
The base text is often a parallel or coordinated disyllabic word. For example, in Li Yu’s “Beautiful Lady Yu”:
“When will spring flowers and autumn moon end; how much of the past remains unknown.”
Here “flowers-moon” is the base text, while “spring-autumn” are embedded words.
In Ming poet Yu Qian’s “Ode to Lime”:
“Thousand strikes, ten thousand blows carved out from deep mountains; even burning fire treats it as nothing. Shattered bones and crushed body are not feared, only purity remains in the world.”
Here numbers are embedded, and in another line “shattered-crushed” is embedded within “bone-body.”
In Song poet Lu You’s “Visiting Western Mountain Village”:
“Mountains overlap, waters wind, making one doubt there is no road; willows darken, flowers brighten, and another village appears.”
Here the paired disyllabic words “mountain-water” and “overlap-repeat” are interwoven into “mountains-waters overlap,” producing vivid imagery.
(2) Base text as polysyllabic phrase
The base text may also be polysyllabic phrases, while embedded words are monosyllables, forming “head-and-tail embedding.” For example, in “Ballad of Mulan”:
“In the east market buy fine horse, in the west market buy saddle, in the south market buy reins, in the north market buy whip.”
Directional monosyllables are inserted into a fixed structure.
(3) Embedded words as numerals, function words, or content words
Words may be split and numerals or lexical items inserted. For example, Bai Juyi’s “Song of the Pipa”:
“Thousand calls, ten thousand calls before she finally appears.”
Here “thousand-ten thousand” is embedded into “call-summon.”
“Ordinary words, once interwoven, produce resonant sound, distinctive structure, and prominent meaning.”3 As in Bai Juyi’s line above, the interweaving of “thousand” and “ten thousand” with “call” creates layered rhythm.
- Manifestation Forms of Embedding
Different scholars classify embedding differently. Huang Qingxuan divides it into “embedded character,” “inserted character,” “augmentation,” and “paired meaning words,” while “interwoven characters” belong to parallelism4. Yang Chunlin divides it into “word-internal embedding,” “sentence-internal embedding,” “interwoven embedding,” and “numerical embedding”5. Lu Jiaxiang divides it into “single embedding,” “cross embedding,” and “head-tail embedding”6. Cheng Weijun et al. divide it into “intercalated embedding,” “cross embedding,” and “acrostic embedding”7.
Synthesizing these views, the author classifies embedding into: “intercalated embedding,” “cross embedding,” “head-tail embedding,” and “augmented/combinatory embedding,” where the latter includes both “augmentation embedding” and “paired embedding.”
I. Intercalated Embedding
This refers to inserting numerals, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs into nouns, verbs, or adjectives, where the inserted word modifies the base word.8 It refers to splitting a disyllabic content word and inserting function words, numerals, or other lexical items to form phrases or idioms.9
For example, in Mu Rong’s “Bitter Fruit”:
“What is it
that through flickering thoughts
ambushes at the boundary of day and night
waiting for me to stumble…”
Here “flickering” is inserted into “bright-dark,” forming intercalated embedding.
In “Difficult Question”:
“When raising a cup toward the past
how can one always be slightly intoxicated
and allow oneself
to slightly shed tears before the cup”
Here “slight” modifies both “drunk” and “intoxicated,” forming intercalation.
II. Cross Embedding
This refers to interweaving lexical pairs into a combined structure with balanced syllables and strong expressive effect.12 It involves splitting paired disyllabic words and interweaving them.13
In Yu Guangzhong’s “The Returning Wanderer”:
“white-walled red-tiled dormitory” emerges from interwoven “wall-tile” and color words.
In Luo Fu’s “Amputation Note”:
“white-black skirt” is interwoven, producing vivid imagery.
III. Head-Tail Embedding
This refers to embedding words at the beginning or end of sentences, carrying both explicit and implicit meanings.16 It is highly subtle in classical poetry and resembles wordplay.
Embedding poems place hidden phrases at the beginning, middle, or end of lines. They can be classified as “famous saying embedding” and “contemporary embedding.”
- Famous Saying Embedding
This refers to using well-known idioms, proverbs, or maxims, presenting only part of them while hiding the rest. For example, “a goose feather sent from a thousand miles—light gift, heavy sentiment.” - Contemporary Embedding
This refers to embedding non-famous, context-specific phrases.
(2) By expressive form: head embedding, tail embedding, and waist embedding.
Head embedding hides the beginning of the phrase, as in Li Bai’s verse referencing “The Milky Way is clear and shallow,” where “Milky Way” is omitted.
Tail embedding omits the ending, as in Jiang Kui’s “Yangzhou Slow,” where “spring wind ten miles” replaces “Yangzhou Road.”
Waist embedding omits the middle, as in Gong Zizhen’s poem where “gone days many” replaces “bitter.”
(3) By effect: substitution embedding and implied embedding.
Substitution embedding replaces one meaning directly with another (e.g., “thirty” represented by “threely-standing age”).
Implied embedding leaves meaning unsaid but inferable.
Acrostic embedding places hidden phrases at line beginnings, often used as playful poetic devices and social exchanges. Examples include Wang Yangming’s acrostic poem forming “Xiang, Zu, Bing, Jiang, Ma, Shi, Pao, Xiang,” Su Shi’s embedded political anecdote, and modern Luo Fu’s poem based on Wang Wei’s famous line “walking to where water ends, sitting to watch clouds rise,” transformed into a playful reinterpretation.
Xiang Ming’s poem “Seeing a Cherry Still Exists in the Depths” is a nine-line acrostic embedding the phrase “deep place sees a cherry still exists.” It also uses cross embedding in “fruits separated from mother trees.”
- Augmented and Complementary Embedding (Augment–Complement Embedding)
“On or around monosyllabic words, a synonymous word or a complementary antonymous word is added to form a compound word.”22 It is also called “biased-meaning compound words,” meaning a parallel but semantically divergent character is used as a supplement, taking only its sound to ease rhythm, while not using its meaning. A biased-meaning compound word emphasizes only one of the two characters within a word, while the other carries no semantic function.
In Chinese, the phenomenon of “augment–complement characters” is discussed in Ma Shi Wen Tong, Volume 2 of the “Content Word Section,” which states: “In ancient texts, various nouns often adopt two-character synonymous formations or paired structures; compared with single-character expressions, their tone appears more substantial and forceful.” Regarding “two-character synonymy,” repetition of synonymous characters aims to lengthen syllables, making tone more complete and meaning more substantial. Regarding “paired opposition,” the structure is formed either by two words of opposite meaning, or by coexistence of both meanings, such as in “life has length and shortness of fate, rank has success and obstruction” (Southern and Northern Dynasties, Pan Yue, Western Capital Rhapsody), where “length/shortness” and “success/obstruction” both coexist in meaning; or only one meaning is taken while the other word serves merely as accompaniment, taking sound for rhythm but not meaning—this is what grammarians call “biased-meaning compound words.”23 For example, in Lu Xun’s famous line “After crossing all calamity waves, brothers still remain; meeting with a smile, grievances and hatred are erased,” the word “enemy” is partially selected in meaning.
(1) Augment Characters (Augment–Embedding)
This refers to adding a synonymous character above or below a monosyllabic word to form a synonymous compound. Such two-character synonymous words include “scope/form,” “appearance/form,” “institutions/system,” “order/rules,” “system/structure,” “life/existence,” etc.
Zhang Cuo, “Heidegger! Heidegger”24
Like sinking into a thousand-fathom, ten-thousand-fathom, incomparably deep ocean
At first it is a slow descent, dazzling sunlight,
and warm surging tides, then
a field of blue, a field of dark green,
like a torrential rain’s densely packed crying and calling sounds!
“Slow” and “gradual” are synonymous words; “warm” and “hot” are also pairs formed by adding a synonymous character to a single word, forming synonymous adjectives functioning here as modifiers.
“Blue” and “azure” are also synonymous color terms. “Ink” here refers to deep green or dark green and is also a near-synonymous color adjective with “green.” “Cry” and “call” are both vocal action verbs; combined, they form a compound synonymous verb phrase.
(2) Complement Characters (Complement–Embedding)
This refers to adding a semantically different character above or below a monosyllabic word to form a compound of divergent meaning. Such oppositional compound words include “ancient/modern,” “right/wrong,” “safety/danger,” “good/bad evaluation,” “entry/exit,” “prosperity/decline,” “advance/retreat,” etc.
Zhang Cuo, “On Writing Thoughts: To Qiao Er”25
Days, weather, or fate
even oxalis and Debussy-like things,
are bound to vanish, just as
joy and sorrow, cloudy and clear, or brilliance
even happiness and unhappiness-like things
will inevitably become the whip and thunder of time that peels away years,
only to be heard, not to be touched.
“Joy/sorrow” and “cloudy/clear” are oppositional compound words. In this passage, they do not function as “biased-meaning compounds” selecting only one meaning; rather, they appear as a simultaneous presence of opposites. This shows that whether such oppositional compounds function as single-meaning or dual-meaning expressions must be determined according to contextual discourse (i.e., “context”). In this section, “joy/sorrow” and “cloudy/clear” are not “biased-meaning compound words.”
Notes
- Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 719.
- Lu Jiaxiang & Chi Taining (eds.), Dictionary of Rhetorical Methods Explained, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1990, p. 256.
- Cheng Weijun et al. (eds.), Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 914.
- Same as note 1, p. 719.
- Yang Chunlin & Liu Fan (eds.), Great Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Art, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p. 914.
- Same as note 2, p. 257.
- Cheng Weijun et al. (eds.), Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 753.
- Same as note 2, p. 257.
- Same as note 7, p. 753.
- From Xi Murong, Nine Chapters of Time, Taipei: Yuan Shen, 2006, pp. 64–65.
- Same as note 10, pp. 50–51.
- Same as note 2, p. 257.
- See Chen Wangdao, Introduction to Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Da Guang, 1964, p. 170.
- From Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong II, Taipei: Hong Fan, 1981, pp. 235–238.
- From Luo Fu, Illustrations of Dreams, Taipei: Bookman, 1999, pp. 25–27.
- Lu Jiaxiang & Chi Taining (eds.), Dictionary of Rhetorical Methods Explained, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1990, p. 258.
- Yang Chunlin & Liu Fan (eds.), Great Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Art, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p. 932.
- Same as note 17, p. 934.
- Same as note 17, p. 935.
- From Luo Fu, Hidden-Titled Poems, Taipei: Er Ya, 1993, pp. 84–85.
- From Xiang Ming, Poems Coming and Going, Taipei: Sanmin, 2003, p. 83.
- Same as note 1, p. 741.
- Same as note 1, p. 741.
- From Zhang Cuo, Twin Jade Ring Lament, Taipei: China Times Publishing, 1984, pp. 22–27.
- Same as note 24, pp. 52–64.
