Chapter 2: Using One Thing to Explain Another: Metaphor
Section 1: Definition and Function of Metaphor
Chapter 2: Using One Thing to Explain Another: Metaphor
Section 1: Definition and Function of Metaphor
1. Metaphor: Definition and Function
“Metaphor is the use of certain similarities between different things, borrowing one thing to explain another. It is also called ‘analogy’ and, in common terms, ‘making a comparison.’” 1
“The characteristic of metaphor is to use one thing to explain another. ‘That’ refers to the object, which in metaphor is called the ‘vehicle’ (or basis of comparison); ‘this’ refers to the subject. These two constitute the two fundamental elements of a metaphorical figure. The link that combines the vehicle and the subject into a metaphor is the similarity between them. Therefore, the relationship between the subject and the object in a metaphor is one of resemblance. The words that indicate this relationship of similarity are called ‘metaphorical markers,’ which serve as linguistic indicators of metaphor.” 2
The functions of metaphor are:
(1) It can transform the unknown into the known.
(2) The use of metaphor can make profound and abstract principles become simple and easy to understand.
(3) It can turn the plain into something vivid and concrete.
Metaphor also has an important aesthetic function, because an exquisite and ingenious metaphor not only enhances the expressive power of a work, but also gives readers a sense of pleasure and delight. 3
2. Metaphor: The Most Widely Used Rhetorical Technique
Throughout history, among the rhetorical techniques used by poets, the most frequently employed is metaphor. Metaphor is the most lively and interesting method of expression. The Greek philosopher Aristotle, in Rhetoric, proposed three major principles of rhetoric: “Use metaphor, use contrast, and be vivid.” In his Poetics, he also said: “To be a master of metaphor is the one thing that cannot be learned from others; it is the mark of genius.” 4
The scholar Qian Zhongshu, in Guan Yi Lu (“On the Art of Literature”), in the essay “Four Old Essays,” proposed that “metaphor is precisely the foundation of literary language,” and further stated: “Metaphor includes two complementary factors: the things involved share similarities… and also differences… The more numerous and greater the differences, the more the similarities are highlighted; the more clearly they are separated, the more unexpected their union becomes. The metaphor is thus more novel, and its effect higher.” 5 These statements successively emphasize the importance of metaphor in literary creation.
The reason metaphor is widely applied is mainly that its rhetorical structure is simple and its technical difficulty is relatively low. It is very common in spoken language, and people are accustomed to it, making it easy to be widely used in literary creation.
It is said that the British writer Oscar Wilde (1854–1900) once made this witty remark: “The first person to compare a woman to a flower is a genius; the second is an ordinary person; the third is a fool.” 6 This statement clearly carries a satirical tone, full of sharp wit, and is deeply thought-provoking. The value of metaphor lies in innovation. Only with one’s own discoveries and insights can it amaze readers. Otherwise, blindly following predecessors, repeating clichés, or imitating one another will make readers feel as if facing a bottle of expired milk, unsure how to handle it in an environmentally responsible way.
Metaphor is widely used in poetry. Tangible appearances, intangible sounds, abstract yet perceptible emotions (such as the seven emotions and six desires), concrete objects (such as animals, plants, and inanimate things), and even imaginary entities (such as ghosts and demons) can all serve as objects of metaphor. Human relationships—family affection, friendship, love—as well as the real world and imagined dreams, are almost entirely encompassed by metaphor. To say that it “reaches the heights of heaven and the depths of the underworld” is not an exaggeration. A wonderful metaphor can often be unexpected and immediately capture the reader’s attention. When poets skillfully use metaphor, they can make poetic imagery vivid and distinct.
3. The Historical Development of Metaphor
(1) The Three Principles of Poetry: Fu, Bi, and Xing
As a rhetorical figure, metaphor has a very early origin in Chinese literary tradition. Since the emergence of language and writing, the rhetorical method of “expressing meaning through objects” has been widely used. Zhong Rong, in Preface to the Classification of Poetry, stated: “Thus poetry has three meanings: first fu, second bi, third xing.” The so-called “feng, ya, song, fu, bi, xing”: the first three refer to the categories and forms of the Book of Songs, that is, literary genres; the latter three refer to methods of literary creation (rhetorical techniques).
Regarding metaphor, the most systematic exposition in later generations is Liu Xie’s The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, in the chapter “Bi and Xing, Chapter 36”:
“Thus, ‘bi’ means attachment, and ‘xing’ means arousal. To attach to principles is to indicate matters through analogy; to arouse emotion is to suggest through subtlety. Because emotion is aroused, the form of ‘xing’ is established; because principles are attached, the pattern of ‘bi’ is produced.” 7
This passage first explains the meanings of “bi” and “xing”: “bi” is comparison—using analogy to explain principles; “xing” is evocation—using objects to evoke emotions, expressing feelings through subtle implication. It further states: “Observing the metaphors of ‘xing,’ they are gentle yet form coherent expression; the named objects are small, but their implications are great… What, then, is ‘bi’? It is to describe objects in order to attach meaning, and to speak explicitly in order to clarify matters.”
Thus, “xing” conveys meaning through objects with subtle wording and independent structure; it uses small objects but implies broader meanings. Liu Xie also believed that “xing” is “clear yet not fully integrated, thus requiring annotation to be revealed,” indicating its high degree of ambiguity. By contrast, “metaphor” uses objects for comparison to clearly and directly express intention.
Liu Xie further stated: “Therefore, gold and tin are used to metaphorize bright virtue; jade tablets to compare outstanding people; the green caterpillar to represent teaching; cicadas and crickets to depict cries; washing clothes to symbolize inner sorrow; rolling up mats to express firm resolve—all such concrete images are examples of ‘bi meaning.’ As for ‘linen garments like snow’ or ‘two horses like dancing,’ these are examples of ‘bi resemblance.’” He thus divides “bi” into two categories: “bi meaning” and “bi resemblance.”
Shen Qian, in Rhetoric, explains:
“Bi meaning”: using concrete things to metaphorize abstract principles.
“Bi resemblance”: using concrete things to metaphorize concrete appearances.
Regarding “fu, bi, xing,” Zhong Rong offered another explanation:
“Thus poetry has three meanings: fu, bi, and xing. When the text is complete but the meaning remains beyond, that is xing; using objects to express one’s intent is bi; directly narrating events and describing things is fu… If one relies solely on bi and xing, the danger lies in excessive depth—when meaning is too deep, expression becomes obstructed.”
This explains that “bi” uses concrete imagery to express intent, while “xing” leaves meaning beyond the words, requiring careful interpretation. Therefore, “xing” is often more implicit than “bi,” hidden within the text and imagery, and must be inferred beyond the linguistic signifier into the realm of the signified. 9 If lacking rational connection or social convention, and without annotations to trace meaning—as Liu Xie described, “revealed only after annotation”—it may lead to a state where “no trace can be found,” resulting in obscurity and difficulty of interpretation.
In fact, Zhong Rong’s “the text ends but meaning remains” corresponds with Yan Canglang’s statement: “Its subtlety is transparent and exquisite… like sound in the air, color in appearance, the moon in water, the image in a mirror—words are finite but meaning is infinite.”
Liu Yongji, citing Li Zhongmeng in Notes on Difficult Learning, stated:
“To narrate objects to express emotion is fu, where emotion exhausts the object; to seek objects to record emotion is bi, where emotion attaches to the object; to be stirred by objects to arouse emotion is xing, where objects move emotion.”
Scholar Zhou Zhenfu considered this explanation accurate for the Book of Songs: “Xing arises from encountering objects, so it often appears at the beginning of each stanza. Because objects arouse emotion, the same object can evoke different feelings.”
Scholar Ye Jiaying, from an aesthetic perspective, analyzed the interaction between emotion and imagery in poetry, offering a comprehensive explanation:
“Fu involves exposition—directly describing what is to be written; bi involves analogy—describing one thing by comparing it to another; xing involves evocation—being inspired by one thing to bring forth another… In short, this simple explanation reveals the fundamental relationships and functions between emotion and imagery in poetry.”
In other words, “fu,” “bi,” and “xing” roughly correspond to “description,” “metaphor,” and “symbolism” in rhetoric.
(2) The Application Objects of Metaphor in The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons and Examples
Regarding the scope of metaphor, Liu Xie stated:
“What is ‘bi’? It is to describe objects to attach meaning, and to speak explicitly to clarify matters. Thus gold and tin metaphorize bright virtue, jade tablets compare outstanding people… all such are ‘bi meaning.’ As for ‘linen garments like snow’ or ‘two horses like dancing,’ these are ‘bi resemblance.’”
Thus, metaphor is divided into:
“Bi meaning”: comparing objects to principles, using the concrete to explain the abstract.
“Bi resemblance”: comparing objects to objects, using the concrete to explain the concrete.
From The Book of Songs, “Xiao Ya: Tian Bao”:
“Heaven protects and stabilizes you, so that nothing does not flourish. Like mountains and mounds, like ridges and hills, like rivers in full flow, so that nothing does not flourish… Like the constancy of the moon, like the rising of the sun, like the longevity of the southern mountains, never collapsing or falling, like the luxuriance of pine and cypress, all will bear blessings.”
Scholar Du Songbai said:
“This poem uses nine metaphors in succession, transforming the concept of heavenly mandate and enduring blessings into vivid imagery through these metaphors, leaving a strong impression. Later generations competed to adopt them, as Liu Xie said: ‘Thus the body of metaphor is richly constructed, varied and abundant, surpassing earlier models.’”
Su Shi, “Drinking at West Lake After Rain”:
“The shimmering water is lovely in sunshine, the misty mountains are also wondrous in rain. If one were to compare West Lake to Xi Shi, whether lightly or heavily adorned, she is always suitable.”
Scholar Du Songbai commented:
“Ordinarily, people use metaphor by comparing humans to objects—beauties to flowers, lotuses to gentlemen, chrysanthemums to recluses, peonies to the wealthy. Su Shi reverses this by comparing objects to humans… Comparing West Lake to Xi Shi makes the lake’s sunshine and rain resemble her light and heavy makeup—always beautiful and appropriate—thus making West Lake more vivid and radiant.”
He further explained:
“The ‘bi’ used in ‘Tian Bao’ is ‘bi meaning,’ comparing the concrete to the abstract; Su Shi’s comparison of West Lake to Xi Shi is ‘bi resemblance,’ comparing the concrete to the concrete.” 10
Regarding the practical application of “metaphor” in creation, Liu Xie said: “As for the meaning of metaphor, the selection of categories is not fixed: sometimes it is used to compare sounds, sometimes to compare appearances, sometimes to liken mental states, sometimes to compare events.” This indicates that the modes of expression of metaphor include comparing sounds, comparing physical forms, comparing thoughts, and comparing things. The author cites examples from Tang and Song poetry as follows:
(1) Metaphor of appearance
“The hibiscus is like her face, the willow like her brows—how could one not shed tears at this sight?” — Bai Juyi, Song of Everlasting Sorrow
The poet Bai Juyi uses two metaphors (explicit similes) in succession. First, he uses the hibiscus to compare the appearance of Yang Guifei, saying that the hibiscus is delicate, beautiful, and carries an aura of nobility, like her face. Next, he uses willow leaves to compare her eyebrows, saying that the slender and well-proportioned willow leaves resemble her brows. In this way, Yang Guifei’s radiant beauty vividly appears on the page.
(2) Metaphor of thought or emotion
“Parting sorrow is just like spring grass; the farther one goes, the more it grows.” — Li Yu, Qing Ping Yue
The lyricist Li Yu (Li Houzhu) uses metaphor (explicit simile) to compare the abstract emotion of parting sorrow to the spring grass that renews its green year after year. Moreover, this sorrow grows again the farther one goes, seeming endless and inseparable like a shadow. This metaphorical technique produces a visual effect even more striking than the previous example from Bai Juyi’s Song of Everlasting Sorrow. Bai’s poem uses static objects as the vehicle of metaphor, creating a static visual image, whereas Li Houzhu’s phrase “the farther one goes, the more it grows” animates the spring grass as the metaphorical vehicle. Thus, the reader experiences a moving visual scene, as if the camera shifts from near to far, until the field of vision is filled entirely with boundless spring grass.
Another example: “Only longing resembles the colors of spring, sending you home across both banks of the river south and north.” — Wang Wei, Sending Shen Zi Back to Jiangdong
The poet uses the colors of spring to metaphorize longing, transforming abstract emotion into concrete imagery. This gives the reader an immersive sense of being in spring, amid “luxuriant blossoms and fragrant air filled with birdsong.” The spring scenery seems present before one’s eyes. The poet subtly conveys: “Spring colors are everywhere, inseparable like a shadow, just like my longing for you; wherever you go, it will follow you.” In Wang Wei’s original poem, these lines describe friendship among companions, but when taken independently, readers may also interpret them as words of affection between lovers, leaving ample room for imagination.
(3) Metaphor of sound
“The thick strings rumble like urgent rain, the thin strings whisper like private speech. The rumbling and whispering intertwine, like large and small pearls falling onto a jade plate. At times, the sound is smooth, like orioles singing among flowers; at times, it is choked, like a stream flowing under ice. The stream turns cold and the strings seem to stop, the sound gradually ceases. Yet another hidden sorrow arises, and in that moment, silence surpasses sound. Suddenly, like a silver bottle breaking and liquid bursting forth, the pipa produces bright, ringing tones, followed by the clamor of armored cavalry breaking through, with swords and spears clashing. At the end of the piece, she sweeps the strings, and the four strings produce a sound like silk tearing.” — Bai Juyi, The Song of the Pipa
The poet Bai Juyi, hearing a courtesan from Chang’an playing the pipa on a boat while seeing off a guest at night, was deeply moved. He spares no effort in depicting the sound of the pipa, allowing readers, through his metaphors, to feel as if they are present at the scene, experiencing the deeply moving music. In this passage, the poet uses various concrete objects to metaphorize the sound of the pipa, creating vivid sensory imagery of sound and color. These layered images lead the reader into an expansive realm of imagination.
(4) Metaphor of things
“The clear river is like a mirror, the moon like a hook; shimmering vastness sends off the traveler’s sorrow.” — Wen Tingyun, Presented to the Fisherman on the West River
The poet first uses a mirror to metaphorize the river under clear skies, describing it as tranquil and pure like a smooth reflective surface, clearly mirroring mountains, birds, and fishing boats. Then he uses a hook to metaphorize the crescent moon at night. In this line, the author employs two metaphors in succession. Through associative thinking, he integrates the concrete images of “mirror” and “hook” with the river surface and the crescent moon, forming a landscape scene from the near river to the distant sky: a quiet night, with a hook-like moon and clear, calm waters.
(3) Chen Kui of the Song Dynasty, in Wenze, on the application objects of metaphor and examples
Chen Kui’s Wenze of the Song Dynasty is the first relatively systematic work in China devoted specifically to rhetoric. In its first section on metaphor, it states: “The Book of Changes has images to fully express meaning; poetry has comparison to convey emotion. In writing, can there be no metaphor?” This indicates that poets use metaphor to vividly express emotions, and emphasizes that it is almost unimaginable to write without using metaphor.
Section 2: The Semantic Structure of Metaphor
1. The Basis of Similarity
“When the object of thought shares similarities with another thing, and in writing that other thing is used to compare and explain the object of thought, it is called metaphor. The formation of this figure actually involves three elements: the object of thought, the other thing, and the point of similarity. Accordingly, in writing there are also three components: the main text, the metaphor, and the metaphorical expression.” 12
This explanation essentially identifies the three structural elements of metaphor: “the object of thought,” “the other thing,” and “the point of similarity.”
“Metaphor is a rhetorical method of ‘using one thing to explain another.’ Whenever two or more things share similarities, using one of them to explain another in speech or writing is called metaphor. Its theoretical framework is based on the psychological process of generalization: using prior experience to evoke new experience. It usually explains the difficult through the easy, and the abstract through the concrete, allowing people to suddenly understand and admire the ingenuity of the metaphor, thereby producing a sense of satisfaction and conviction.” 13
The reason the subject and the vehicle must share a “point of similarity” as an intermediary is that it connects two originally independent and unrelated entities. This connection, based on similarity, has its psychological foundation in generalization: using old experience to evoke new experience. Its expressive form is “explaining the unknown through the known, and the abstract through the concrete.” In literary creation, this is realized through associative thinking based on similarity, linking two originally independent elements.
2. The Semantic Structure of Metaphor
A metaphorical figure is composed of three elements: the “subject,” the “metaphorical marker,” and the “vehicle” (basis of comparison). The “subject” is the thing to be explained; the “vehicle” is the other thing used to explain the subject; the “metaphorical marker” is the word that connects the subject and the vehicle. Dividing the structure of metaphor into these three elements is called the “three-element theory of metaphor,” which is adopted by most scholars.
The most complete structural form of metaphor, according to scholar Huang Lizhen, should include four parts: 14
(1) Subject (main body): the thing to be explained.
(2) Vehicle (basis of comparison): the thing used to explain the subject.
(3) Metaphorical marker: the connecting word between subject and vehicle, helping identify the sentence as a metaphor. Common markers include: like, as, resembles, seems, as if, as though, similar to, is, becomes, etc.
(4) Explanation: words that clarify the point of similarity between subject and vehicle. The author or speaker often provides such explanation before or after the metaphor, especially for novel or unusual metaphors.
These four parts are called the “four-element theory of metaphor,” which is more comprehensive.
Whether adopting the three-element theory or the four-element theory does not affect the establishment of metaphor as a rhetorical figure. The differences lie only in the naming and classification of its components, which may cause some confusion among readers. The author therefore proposes the terms “metaphorical subject,” “metaphorical object,” “metaphorical copula,” and “metaphorical explanation” as the basic structural elements, where the first three are essential and the explanation is supplementary.
The distinction between simile and metaphor
Both simile and metaphor contain the complete basic elements (metaphorical subject, object, and copula), but differ slightly in the mode of connection. Simile uses “indirect connection,” often employing words such as “like,” “as,” “resembles,” “as if,” “as though,” etc., with similarity as the intermediary. Structurally, it is a connection between two separate entities (subject and object), which remain distinct and retain their individual characteristics. In other words, similarity is the intersection between the subject and the object.
Metaphor, on the other hand, uses “direct connection,” often employing words such as “is,” “becomes,” “turns into,” or “is taken as.” Its intermediary is the fusion of similarity. Structurally, it connects two separate entities and merges them into one, so that they are no longer separate. Their characteristics interpenetrate, forming a broader and more complex new entity. In other words, this fusion of similarity represents the union between the metaphorical subject and object.
Section Three: Forms of Expression of Metaphor
The forms of expression of metaphor, in modern poetry, are more commonly presented as nine types: “simile,” “metaphor (implicit metaphor),” “elliptical metaphor,” “metonymic metaphor,” “extended metaphor,” “multiple metaphor,” “chain metaphor,” “compound metaphor,” and “inverse metaphor.” These differ only in structural complexity. Among them, “extended metaphor” adds an “explanatory element” on the basis of simile; “inverse metaphor” generally adopts a negative sentence pattern. Scholars Cheng Wei-jun and Huang Li-zhen classify the latter four as “variants of metaphor.” The author follows this view.
I. Conventional Forms of Metaphor
1. Simile (simile)
“Any metaphor in which the tenor, the comparative word, and the vehicle are all present is called a simile.”
“The compared object and the comparing object appear simultaneously, expressing a relationship of similarity, commonly using words such as: like, as if, as, similar to, comparable to, as though, just like, as it were, for example, as if, exactly like, and so on.”
The term “simile” literally refers to the most explicit form of metaphor. It is the most structurally complete, the most direct in expression, and also the most accessible. Readers can easily grasp it, and writers can most fully control and accurately employ it. Therefore, within the family of metaphor, it appears most frequently.
The rhetorical device of metaphor has a long history. As early as the ancient Book of Songs, examples are abundant. For instance:
“召南‧野有死麇”:
“In the forest there are trees; in the wild there is a dead deer; white reeds bundled pure, there is a maiden like jade.”
“召南‧何彼襛矣”:
“How luxuriant it is, flowers like peach and plum, the grandson of King Ping, the son of the Duke of Qi.”
“邶風‧柏舟”:
“O sun and moon, why do you wane? My heart is full of sorrow, like unwashed clothes. Quietly I ponder, yet cannot soar.”
“邶風‧燕燕”:
“Swallows fly, their wings uneven. The girl departs, sent far into the fields. Gazing but not reaching, tears fall like rain.”
Examples are even more numerous in poetry across the dynasties. For example:
Tang dynasty, He Zhizhang, “Ode to the Willow”:
“I do not know who cut out the fine leaves; the February spring wind is like scissors.”
Du Mu, “Mountain Travel”:
“I stop the carriage to admire the maple forest at dusk; the frosted leaves are redder than February flowers.”
Song dynasty, Su Shi, “Drinking on the Lake, First Clear Then Rain”:
“If I were to compare the West Lake to Xi Shi, light makeup or heavy adornment both suit her.”
Li Yu, “Yu Meiren”:
“How much sorrow can one have? It is just like a river of spring water flowing eastward.”
Among these metaphors, some tenors are real scenes, such as “frosted leaves” and “West Lake”; others are emotions or abstract entities, such as “how much sorrow” and “spring wind.” However, the vehicles are all concrete objects or scenes, such as “scissors,” “Xi Shi,” “February flowers,” and “spring water.”
Likewise, in modern poetry, simile is like a magical pair of scissors:
“Poetic feeling is also like the sharp Bingzhou scissors, cutting autumn light into the scroll.”
Consider the following example:
Zheng Chouyu, “Error”
I pass through Jiangnan
The face that waits in the season is like the blooming and falling of lotus flowers
The east wind does not come, the willow fluff of March does not fly
Your heart is like a small lonely city
As if the bluestone street is at dusk
Footsteps do not sound, the spring curtain of March is not lifted
Your heart is a small tightly shut window
My clattering horse hooves are a beautiful mistake
I am not a returning man, but a passerby…
Zheng Chouyu’s poetry is lyrical in tone, expressing the romantic sentiments of a wanderer and knight-errant. It is widely circulated in the Chinese-speaking world and is highly popular. This poem “Error” is the most prominent among his works. It is a lyric poem on the theme of boudoir longing, developed from the first-person perspective. Traditional boudoir poems are usually written by men in a woman’s voice; if this poem followed that convention, it would merely be imitation. Its language is enduring and refined. Notably, metaphor runs throughout the poem, including similes:
(1) “the face that waits in the season is like the blooming and falling of lotus flowers”
(2) “your heart is like a small lonely city / as if the bluestone street is at dusk”
and also an implicit metaphor: “your heart is a small tightly shut window.”
The shift from simile to metaphor makes the meaning more subtle and profound.
Yu Guangzhong, “Double Bed”
Let war proceed outside the double bed
Lying on your long slope
Listening to stray bullets, like a whistling firefly
Darting above your head and mine
Darting past my beard and your hair
Comparing stray bullets to whistling fireflies is based on the similarity in visual appearance between the two images. The image is vivid and perceptible. By describing bullets as fireflies, the poet deliberately weakens the atmosphere of slaughter on the battlefield, redirecting the reader’s attention from war to the intimacy between lovers.
Xiong Hong, “Ripples”
Suddenly I think of you, but not you at this moment
No longer radiant, no longer splendid
Not in the most beautiful dream, not in the most beautiful dream
Suddenly I think
But the sadness is slight
Like a departing boat
The ripples beside the boat…
The female poet’s emotions are sensitive and delicate. She describes slight sadness as the ripples stirred by a departing boat, and the source of that sadness is “suddenly thinking of you.”
2. Metaphor (implicit metaphor)
“Any metaphor that includes the tenor and the vehicle, but replaces the comparative word with linking verbs such as ‘is,’ ‘becomes,’ ‘forms,’ or ‘acts as,’ is called a metaphor, also known as an implicit metaphor.”
“It directly states the tenor as the vehicle, expressing a relationship of equivalence. Since this relationship is not as explicit as in simile, it is called implicit.”
Metaphor is a step beyond simile. The relationship between the tenor and vehicle is closer. In simile, the form is “A is like B,” whereas in metaphor, the form is “A is B.” In simile, the two are similar; in metaphor, they are fused.
The term “metaphor” literally means a hidden comparison. It combines the tenor and the vehicle into one entity through a linking word.
Aristotle, in Poetics, states:
“The greatest thing is to be a master of metaphor. This cannot be learned from others; it is the mark of genius.”
He emphasizes that poets must skillfully use metaphor, and that such mastery cannot simply be inherited from others’ works. Indeed, a good metaphor conveys intuitive perception subtly through different things, creating a new and suggestive context. However, what cannot be learned refers more to inspiration or unique aesthetic experience. Later learners can still gain insight from skilled poets, but must internalize and transform it into originality.
Zheng Chouyu, “Letter from Beyond the Mountains”
I am a man from the sea
Mountains are frozen waves
(No longer believing the news of the sea)
My longing to return
No longer surges
Here, the poet uses metaphor to describe mountains as frozen waves. The similarity lies in form, but their nature differs. Through metaphor, the poet unites them, creating a new aesthetic perception.
Xiang Ming, “Young Dancer”
On the other side of the world, a leering face emerges
Take it off! Take it off!
Only then does she realize
She is merely
An unsold onion
In her father’s field
The more it is peeled
The whiter
The whiter
The more tender
In this poem, the young dancer is compared to an onion. Their pale and tender qualities form the basis of similarity. The metaphor fuses their identities and connects their fates, leading to the explanation: “the more it is peeled, the whiter, the more tender.”
Xiong Hong, “Dream”
What dare not enter poetry
Enters dreams
Dream is a thread
Weaving through
Impossible encounters
This short poem is gentle and refined. The poet metaphorically presents the dream as a thread, weaving through impossible meetings. In “dream is a thread,” “dream” is the tenor, and “thread” is the vehicle. The two are fused into one, unlike in simile. “Weaving through impossible encounters” serves as the explanatory element.
Yang Mu, “Midnight”
The wind is in my empty embrace. At that time you
were silent, like dark seawater without a sound
I am thin cold mist, once again losing direction
wandering along the ripples, alert, restrained
a kind of transparent distance
In this passage, the poet first uses a simile to compare “your silence” to “dark seawater,” which is impenetrable, incomprehensible, and thus frightening; then he uses a metaphor to describe himself as “thin cold mist,” and further elaborates that he is “once again losing direction / wandering along the ripples, alert, restrained / a kind of transparent distance.” From “your” silence and “my” alert restraint and transparent distance, it can be inferred that the two people face each other in cold silence, locked in a stalemate.
- Elliptical Metaphor
The basic sentence pattern of elliptical metaphor is “A (tenor) — B (vehicle),” with the comparative word omitted in between. As to whether the relationship between tenor and vehicle belongs to the “similarity relation” of simile or the “fusion relation” of metaphor, scholars differ. Shen Qian supports the simile interpretation, while Huang Li-zhen, drawing on Chen Wangdao’s “elliptical simile” and “elliptical metaphor,” proposes adopting both views: “Elliptical similes and elliptical metaphors, which omit the comparative word, should still be distinguished according to context.”
Generally speaking, if a simile omits the comparative word, it formally becomes an elliptical simile. Conversely, an elliptical metaphor is not necessarily an elliptical simile; it must be judged according to the nature of the omitted comparative word.
Yang Huan, “Road”
The wheels of the car, the hooves of the horse
The flashing bugle, the hunting flag
The tireless will moves forward
Why complain about those innocent shoes?
You! An extinguished torch, a fish in a dried-up pond.
In the sentence “You! an extinguished torch, a fish in a dried-up pond,” only the tenor “you” and the vehicles “torch” and “fish” appear; the comparative word is omitted. The relationship is one of similarity, not fusion. If interpreted as a metaphor in which a person fuses with a torch or a fish, it would be illogical.
Ye Weilian, “The Story of Wildflowers”
Wildflowers
after the blazing artillery fire has died out
bloom passionately
spring rain irrigates
blood and hatred
nourishing
the roots of hope
calling out among broken tiles and ruins
faint echoes
pain
is plowed earth
cultivated in the seasonal wind
on the hillside
“wildflowers red like fire!”
song
rows of wheat waves
flowing melodiously
In this passage, there is personification: “wildflowers… bloom passionately,” “the roots of hope call out,” and “spring rain irrigates blood and hatred.” There is also metaphor: “pain is plowed earth cultivated in the seasonal wind,” visual depiction: “wildflowers red like fire,” and an elliptical metaphor after omitting “like”: “song / rows of wheat waves / flowing melodiously.”
The relationship between song and wheat waves is one of similarity (“like”), not fusion (“is”), because song is abstract while wheat waves are concrete. The shift from auditory imagery (song) to visual imagery (wheat waves) also constitutes synesthesia.
- Metonymic Metaphor (Borrowed Metaphor)
“When the tenor and comparative word are omitted, leaving only the vehicle, it is called a borrowed metaphor.”
“It is the most concise and implicit form of metaphor, presenting only the vehicle, with the tenor and comparative word omitted; thus the vehicle holds absolute prominence.”
“It directly replaces the tenor with the vehicle to explain it, without showing the tenor or using a comparative word.”
This form is the most condensed. Because the relationship between tenor and vehicle is very close, the tenor can usually be inferred from the context. Since the tenor does not appear, the vehicle becomes more striking, and the characteristics it conveys are more prominent.
For example, “Nineteen Ancient Poems”:
“Step by step, again step by step,
I part from you in life.
Separated by ten thousand miles,
each at one edge of the sky.
The road is long and obstructed,
when shall we meet again?
The northern horse leans toward the north wind,
the southern bird nests on southern branches.”
The northern horse longing for the north wind and the southern bird nesting on southern branches symbolize attachment to homeland, suggesting that even animals have such feelings, and thus those traveling far away should remember to return.
Ya Xian, “Short Song Collection: Meteor”
Consorts carrying glass palace lanterns
quietly cross the Milky Way
a girl named Hui
slips with a cry
The stars are personified as “consorts carrying lanterns,” and the comet as a “girl.” The tenor “meteor” appears only in the title; the lines present only the vehicles. This borrowed metaphor is concise and vivid.
Shen Huamo, “Kapok Flower”
When the leaves have fallen
spring has entered the city
in the streets
sunlight illuminates the dark branches
flames, one by one
falling with deep sighs
like tears not yet dry
expressing desolate feelings—
many helpless beginnings and endings in life
what is missed becomes beautiful
“Flames, one by one” directly uses borrowed metaphor to depict kapok flowers, though the tenor appears only in the title. “Like tears not yet dry” is a simile. The technique of first using a hidden metaphor and then an explicit simile gradually reveals the image.
Luo Renling, “Eagle”
Standing atop a towering peak, waiting
the wind slowly approaches
opening bewildered sleeves
a loneliness
flies past
In many object-poems, borrowed metaphor is favored. Here, “standing atop a towering peak” implies the eagle without naming it. “A loneliness flies past” replaces “an eagle flies past.” The noun “loneliness,” derived from an adjective, captures the solitary nature of the eagle, conveying its independent spirit.
Jiao Tong, “Marionette”
In the dark there are always several strings
replacing nerves, bones, and blood vessels—
one controls the flattering face
pulling desire into circles
one governs submissive posture
making will sway with the wind
another eavesdrops on a hesitant throat
under the light, voice and movement
are entirely controlled by an old man in the shadows…
and there is yet another string in the unseen
moving the soul, sentimentally
plucking the separations and reunions of fate
turning reality
into entangled dreams
The tenor “marionette” remains hidden throughout. The poet elaborately describes the controlling strings, conveying the puppet’s lack of autonomy. Object-poetry often uses borrowed metaphor, omitting the tenor and instead detailing the vehicle to highlight the subject indirectly.
Section Three: Forms of Expression of Metaphor
The forms of expression of metaphor, in modern poetry, are more commonly presented as nine types: “simile,” “metaphor (implicit metaphor),” “elliptical metaphor,” “substituted metaphor,” “extended metaphor,” “multiple metaphor,” “chain metaphor,” “combined metaphor,” and “inverse metaphor.” They differ only in the complexity or simplicity of their structural components. Among them, “extended metaphor” adds “explanatory interpretation” on the basis of simile; “inverse metaphor” generally adopts a “negative sentence pattern.” Scholars Cheng Weijun15 and Huang Lizhen16 classify the latter four as “variations of metaphor.” The author follows this classification.
I. Conventional Metaphors
1. Simile (simile)
“All metaphors that possess the three elements—tenor, connective word, and vehicle—are called similes.”17
“When the compared object and the comparing object both appear simultaneously, expressing a relationship of similarity, commonly used words include: like, as if, as, similar to, just like, resembling, as though, identical to, as it were, for example, as if, exactly like, etc.”18
The term “simile” literally refers to the most explicit form of metaphor. It is the most structurally complete, the most direct in expression, and also the most straightforward. It is the easiest for readers to understand and the easiest for authors to master and operate correctly. Therefore, among the family of metaphors, it appears with the highest frequency.
The rhetorical figure of metaphor has a long history. As early as in the ancient Book of Songs, it can be found everywhere. For example:
“召南‧野有死麇”: “In the forest there are fallen trees, in the wild there is a dead deer; bundled with white grass, there is a maiden like jade.”
“召南‧何彼襛矣”: “How luxuriant they are, the blossoms like peach and plum, the grandson of King Ping, the son of the Marquis of Qi.”
“邶風‧柏舟”: “O sun and moon, why do you wane and wax? My heart is sorrowful, like unwashed clothes.”
“邶風‧燕燕”: “Swallows fly, their wings uneven; the lady goes to her marriage, far into the wild. Gazing but unable to see, tears fall like rain.”
There are even more examples in poetry across dynasties. For instance, in the Tang Dynasty, He Zhizhang’s “Ode to the Willow”: “I do not know who cut out these fine leaves; the spring breeze of February is like scissors.” Du Mu’s “Mountain Walk”: “I stop my carriage to admire the late maple forest; the frost leaves are redder than flowers of February.” Su Shi’s “Drinking on the Lake after First Clear and Then Rain”: “If one were to compare West Lake to Xi Shi, whether lightly or heavily adorned, she is always suitable.” Li Yu’s “Yu Meiren”: “Ask how much sorrow there can be? It is just like a river of spring water flowing eastward.”
In these metaphors, some tenors are concrete scenes, such as “frost leaves” and “West Lake”; some are emotions or abstract concepts, such as “how much sorrow” and “spring breeze.” However, the vehicles are all concrete objects or scenes: the former such as “scissors,” “Xi Shi,” “February flowers,” and the latter such as “spring water.”
Similarly, in modern poetry, simile is like a pair of magically powerful “Bingzhou scissors”: “Poetic feeling is also as sharp as Bingzhou blades, cutting autumn scenery into the scroll.” (Lu You, Song Dynasty, “Autumn Thoughts, No. 1”). Consider the following poetic examples.
Zheng Chouyu, “Error”19
I pass through the south of the Yangtze
That face waiting in the seasons is like the blooming and falling of a lotus
The east wind does not come, the willow catkins of March do not fly
Your heart is like a small lonely city
Just like a stone-paved street at dusk
No footsteps sound, the spring curtain of March is not lifted
Your heart is a small tightly shut window
My clattering horse hooves are a beautiful mistake
I am not a returning man, but a passerby…
Zheng Chouyu’s poetry is lyrical in tone, expressing the romantic sentiments of a wanderer and a knight-errant. It is widely circulated in the Chinese-speaking world and is highly popular. This poem “Error” is the most visible among his works and occupies a central position. This lyric poem on the theme of boudoir lament develops the story from the first-person perspective of “I.” Traditional boudoir lament poetry is written by men in a woman’s voice; if this poem were written in that way, it would merely be imitation. The language of this poem is refined. Notably, the use of metaphor runs throughout the poem, including similes: (1) “that face waiting in the seasons is like the blooming and falling of a lotus,” (2) “your heart is like a small lonely city / just like a stone-paved street at dusk”; and metaphor: “your heart is a small tightly shut window.” The shift from simile to metaphor makes the meaning more implicit and profound.
Yu Guangzhong, “Double Bed”20
Let the war proceed outside the double bed
Lying on your long slope
Listening to stray bullets, like whistling fireflies
Darting above your head and mine
Darting past my beard and your hair
Comparing stray bullets to whistling fireflies is based on the “similarity” in visual form between the two images. The imagery is vivid and perceptible. By describing bullets as fireflies, the poet intentionally weakens the atmosphere of battlefield slaughter, shifting the reader’s attention from war to the intimacy between lovers.
Xiong Hong, “Water Ripples”21
Suddenly I think of you, but not the you of this moment
No longer radiant, no longer splendid
Not in the most beautiful dream, in the most beautiful dream
Suddenly I think of you
But the sadness is slight
Like a departing boat
The ripples beside the boat…
The female poet’s thoughts are sensitive and delicate. The slight sadness is like the ripples stirred by a departing boat, and the source of sadness is “suddenly thinking of you.” This scene of sorrow and mood resembles Liu Yong’s “Rain Bell”: “Thinking of departing, thousands of miles of misty waves, the dusk clouds heavy, the sky vast.”
2. Metaphor (implicit metaphor)
“All expressions that contain tenor and vehicle, while the connective word is replaced by copulative or quasi-copulative verbs such as ‘is,’ ‘becomes,’ ‘acts as,’ are called metaphor, also known as implicit metaphor.”22
“It directly states the tenor as the vehicle, expressing a relationship of equivalence. Because this relationship is not as explicit as in simile but is implied, it is called implicit metaphor.”23
Metaphor is a further development beyond simile. The relationship between tenor and vehicle is closer than in simile. The form of simile is “A is like B,” while the form of metaphor is “A is B.” In simile, the relationship is one of similarity; in metaphor, it is one of fusion.
The term “metaphor” literally refers to a hidden comparison, also called implicit metaphor. It is the most mysterious member of the metaphor family. Its form directly combines tenor and vehicle into one.
Aristotle, in Poetics, Chapter 22, provides a profound insight: “The greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It cannot be learned from others; it is the mark of genius, for a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of similarity in dissimilar things.”24
Zheng Chouyu, “Letter Beyond the Mountains”25
I am a man from the sea
Mountains are frozen waves
(No longer believing the news of the sea)
My longing to return
No longer surges
Here, the poet metaphorically describes mountains as frozen waves, capturing a moment as if frozen by a camera.
II. Variant Metaphors
5. Extended Metaphor
“Beyond tenor, connective word, and vehicle, when the intended meaning (i.e., ‘interpretation’) is directly explained, it is called extended metaphor.”41
It provides detailed description or explanation of the vehicle to clarify the tenor.
For example, Bai Juyi’s poem:
“Drunken face like frost leaves, though red, it is not spring.”
“Drunken face” is the tenor, “like” is the connective, “frost leaves” is the vehicle, and “though red, it is not spring” is the interpretation.
Yang Huan, “Flowers and Fruits”43
Flowers are silent music
Fruits are the most moving books
When they perform in spring, publish in autumn
“Flowers” and “fruits” are tenors; “music” and “books” are vehicles; “perform in spring, publish in autumn” is the interpretation.
6. Multiple Metaphor (one tenor, many vehicles)
“Using several vehicles from different perspectives repeatedly to explain one tenor is called multiple metaphor, also known as ‘linked comparison.’”46
It strengthens meaning, enhances momentum, and enriches imagery.
He Zhu’s “Qingyu An”:
“How much idle sorrow is there? A river of misty grass, a city full of flying catkins, rain during the yellow plum season.”
Here, “idle sorrow” is one tenor explained by three vehicles.
Du Fu’s “Watching the Sword Dance”:
Uses four metaphors to describe movement, force, expression, and action.
Bai Juyi’s “Pipa Song”:
Uses nearly ten metaphors such as “sudden rain,” “whispering,” “pearls on a jade plate,” “oriole song,” “flowing spring,” “silver vase,” “clashing weapons,” “torn silk.”
Yin Di, “Song of Mystery”49
Mystery is like night
Mystery is a demon
Mystery, a black bat
Entangling the black hole in our hearts
The poet uses three metaphors in sequence: simile, metaphor, and elliptical metaphor, followed by interpretation.
Xi Murong, “The Question of the Sea”51
What is eternity?
Is it the phosphorescent waves at night
Or the warm sea breeze
Is it the damp shore beneath our feet
Or your shy smiling face in the wind
“Eternity” is an abstract concept, expressed through four metaphors: waves, sea breeze, shore, and face.
Chen Kehua, “Song of the Dumbbell”52
I know I will always return to the dumbbell
Like a tree returns to the soil, like clouds return to the window
Glory returns to the crown, slogans return
To fists standing like masts
Dreams return to moist eyelashes
Memories return to the shoulders of a pure youth
This passage uses six metaphors with a shared structure, combining parallelism and progression.
Section 3: Forms of Expression of Metaphor
The forms of expression of metaphor, in modern poetry, are more commonly presented in nine types: “simile,” “metaphor (implicit metaphor),” “elliptical metaphor,” “metonymic metaphor (borrowed metaphor),” “extended metaphor,” “multiple metaphor,” “serial metaphor,” “chain metaphor,” and “negative metaphor.” Among these, the differences lie only in the degree of structural complexity. Among them, “extended metaphor” adds “explanatory interpretation” on the basis of simile; “negative metaphor” generally adopts a “negative sentence pattern.” Scholars Cheng Weijun15 and Huang Lizhen16 classify the latter four as “variants of metaphor.” The author follows this view.
I. Conventional Forms of Metaphor
- Simile (simile)
“Any metaphor in which the subject, the comparative word, and the vehicle are all present is called a simile.”17 “The compared object and the comparing object appear simultaneously, expressing the similarity between the two, commonly using comparative words such as: like, as if, as, as though, comparable to, similar to, as if it were, the same as, seemingly, for example, as though, just like, etc.”18 The term “simile” literally refers to the most explicit form of metaphor. Among the family of metaphorical rhetoric, simile has the most complete structure, the most direct mode of expression, and is also the most straightforward. It is the easiest for readers to comprehend, and the type that writers can most fully grasp and correctly employ. Therefore, within the family of metaphor, it appears with the highest frequency.
Metaphorical rhetoric has a long history. As early as in the ancient “Book of Songs,” it can be found everywhere. For example, in “Zhaonan: There Is a Dead Deer in the Wild”: “In the forest there are shrubs, in the wild there is a dead deer; white grass bundled neatly, there is a maiden like jade.” Also in “Zhaonan: How Lush It Is”: “How lush it is, the blossoms are like peach and plum; the grandson of King Ping, the son of the Marquis of Qi.” In “Bei Feng: Cypress Boat”: “O sun, O moon, why do you wane and wax? My heart is troubled, like unwashed clothes. Quietly I think on it, yet cannot soar.” And in “Bei Feng: Swallow, Swallow”: “Swallows fly, their wings uneven. That maiden goes to her husband, far away to the wilds. I gaze but cannot reach her, tears fall like rain.”
There are even more examples in poetry across dynasties. For instance, in the Tang dynasty, He Zhizhang’s “Ode to the Willow”: “I wonder who cut out these fine leaves; the spring breeze of February is like scissors.” Du Mu’s “Mountain Journey”: “I stop the carriage to admire the maple forest at dusk; frost-touched leaves are redder than February flowers.” In the Song dynasty, Su Shi’s “Drinking by the West Lake, First Clear Then Rain”: “If one would compare West Lake to Xi Shi, light or heavy makeup both suit her.” Li Houzhu (Li Yu)’s “Yu Meiren”: “I ask you, how much sorrow can there be? It is just like a river of spring water flowing east.” In these metaphors, some subjects are real scenes, such as “frost leaves” and “West Lake”; others are emotions or abstract things, such as “how much sorrow” and “spring breeze.” Yet the vehicles are all concrete objects or scenes: the former include “scissors,” “Xi Shi,” “February flowers,” and the latter include “spring water.”
Likewise, in modern poetry, simile is like a pair of magically powerful “Bingzhou scissors”: “Poetic feeling is also like sharp scissors, cutting autumn scenery into the scroll.” (Song dynasty Lu You, “Autumn Thoughts I”). Consider the following poetic examples.
Zheng Chouyu, “Mistake”19
I pass through Jiangnan
That face waiting in the season is like the blooming and falling of a lotus
The east wind does not come, the willow fluff of March does not fly
Your heart is like a small lonely city
Just like a stone-paved street at dusk
No footsteps sound, the spring curtain of March is not lifted
Your heart is a small tightly closed window
My clattering horse hooves are a beautiful mistake
I am not a returning man, but a passerby…
Zheng Chouyu’s poetry takes lyricism as its tone, expressing the romantic sentiments of a wanderer and a knight-errant. It is widely circulated in the Chinese-speaking world and highly popular, truly a rare flower. Among his works, “Mistake” is the most visible, occupying a central focal position. This lyric poem, expressing the theme of boudoir resentment, develops the story from a first-person narrative perspective. Traditional boudoir poems were written by men in a woman’s voice; if this poem were written in that way, it would merely be imitation and lack meaning. The language of this poem is enduring and noteworthy, especially its use of metaphor throughout, including similes: (1) “That face waiting in the season is like the blooming and falling of a lotus”; (2) “Your heart is like a small lonely city / just like a stone-paved street at dusk”; and also implicit metaphor: “Your heart is a small tightly closed window.” The shift from simile to metaphor makes the meaning more subtle and profound.
Yu Guangzhong, “Double Bed”20
Let the war proceed outside the double bed
Lying on your long slope
Listening to stray bullets, like whistling fireflies
Darting above your head and mine
Darting past my beard and your hair
Comparing stray bullets to whistling fireflies is based on the similarity in visual form between the two images, producing a vivid and perceptible image. By describing stray bullets as fireflies, the poet deliberately weakens the atmosphere of battlefield slaughter, shifting the reader’s attention from the battlefield to the intimacy of lovers in bed.
Xiong Hong, “Ripples”21
Suddenly I think of you, but not you of this moment
No longer radiant, no longer splendid
Not in the most beautiful dream, in the most beautiful dream
Suddenly I think
But the sadness is slight
Like a departing boat
The ripples beside the boat…
The female poet’s thoughts are sensitive and delicate. She describes slight sadness as like the ripples stirred by a departing boat, and the origin of the sadness is “suddenly thinking of you.” This scene of sadness and tone of sorrow resembles Liu Yong’s “Rain Bell”: “Thinking of departure upon departure, a thousand miles of misty waves, dusk clouds heavy over the vast sky of Chu.”
- Metaphor (metaphor)
“Any figure that contains the subject and the vehicle, while the comparative word is replaced by linking verbs or quasi-linking verbs such as: is, becomes, turns into, serves as, is called metaphor, also known as implicit metaphor.”22 “It directly states that the subject is the vehicle, expressing an equivalence relation. Because this metaphorical relation is not as explicit as in simile, but implied, it is called implicit metaphor.”23
Metaphor is a further step beyond simile. The relationship between the literal and the figurative is closer than in simile. The form of simile is “A is like B,” whereas the form of metaphor is “A is B.” In simile, the subject and the vehicle are in a relation of similarity; in metaphor, they are in a relation of combination.
The term “metaphor” literally means a hidden metaphor, also called implicit metaphor. It is the most mysterious member of the metaphor family. Its form directly links the subject and the vehicle through a linking word, combining them into one entity.
Aristotle, in “Poetics,” Chapter 22, offers a profound insight on metaphor: “The greatest thing by far is to be a master of metaphor. It cannot be learned from others; it is the mark of genius, for a good metaphor implies an intuitive perception of similarity in dissimilars.”24 Aristotle emphasizes that poets must skillfully use metaphor, and that this advanced technique cannot be inherited from others’ works, making metaphor a mark of genius. Indeed, a good metaphor subtly expresses an intuitive perception through different objects, creating a new and suggestive situation. However, it should be emphasized that Aristotle’s statement that metaphor cannot be learned likely refers to something akin to inspiration or personal aesthetic experience. In other words, the use of metaphor is often based on insight in a state of intuition. Nevertheless, later learners can still gain inspiration from the works of skilled poets, though such inspiration must be internalized and transformed to produce new ideas.
Zheng Chouyu, “Letter from Beyond the Mountains”25
I am a man from the sea
The mountains are frozen waves
(No longer believing news of the sea)
My returning heart
No longer surges
In this poem, Zheng Chouyu uses metaphor to describe the rolling mountains as frozen waves. This novel metaphor resembles a snapshot captured instantly by a camera. The solidity of mountains and the fluctuation of waves share only visual similarity but differ essentially. Through metaphor, the poet skillfully connects them, conveying a new perception and aesthetic experience.
Xiang Ming, “Young Dancer”26
On the other side of the world, a smiling face drools
Take it off! Take it off!
Only then does she realize
She is merely an onion
Left unsold in her father’s field
The more it is peeled
The whiter
The whiter
The more tender
In traditional Chinese society, which values males over females, daughters are often marginalized. The protagonist of this poem is a young stripper, surrounded by men’s greedy gazes. As she undresses with the music, she recalls her life, treated by her father as a money-making tool, and suddenly feels sorrow. “She is merely an onion left unsold in her father’s field.” The whiteness and tenderness of the dancer and the onion share similarity, so the poet merges their attributes through metaphor, linking their fates, leading to the explanation: “the more it is peeled, the whiter, the whiter, the more tender.”
Xiong Hong, “Dream”27
What dare not enter poetry
Enters dreams
Dream is a thread
Weaving through
Impossible encounters
This short poem is delicate and enduring. The poet metaphorically describes dreams as a thread weaving through impossible encounters. In the metaphor “Dream is a thread,” “dream” is the subject and “thread” is the vehicle, fused into one entity rather than remaining separate. This is the key difference from simile. “Weaving through impossible encounters” serves as the explanatory interpretation.
[Notes]
(1) Edited by Cheng Weijun and two others, Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Taipei: Jianhong, 1991, p. 471.
(2) Liu Huanhui, Outline of Rhetoric, Nanchang: Baihuazhou Literature and Art, 1991, p. 247.
(3) Edited by Lu Jiaxiang and Chi Taining, Dictionary of Examples of Rhetorical Methods, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1990, p. 9.
(4) Translated by Yao Yiwei, Aristotle (384 BC–322 BC), Poetics with Annotations (On Poetic), Taipei: Zhonghua, 1982, p. 176, “Chapter 22”: “The correct use of compound words and foreign words is indeed important. Yet more important is to become a master of metaphor. Metaphor cannot be learned from others; it is an expression of genius, for a good metaphor can suggest an intuitive perception of similarity in dissimilar things.” Also, in the translation by Cui Yanqiang and Yan Yihe, On Poetry, p. 51: “The correct use of the various words, compound words, and rare words mentioned above is important, but nothing is more important than the proper use of metaphor. This is a matter of unique craftsmanship and also a mark of genius, because mastery of metaphor implies the intuitive perception of similarity between things.” Also Li Xiaocen, Modern English Rhetoric: “The greatest thing in writing poetry lies in how to skillfully use metaphor. This cannot be learned from others, and it is also a sign of genius, because a good metaphor is the subtle expression of an intuitive perception through different things.”
(5) Quoted from Chen Dejin, “The Creativity of Metaphors in Fortress Besieged”
http://www.takungpao.com:82/news/07/02/11/WX-691382.htm
(6) Quoted from Leng Yue Wuxin, “Already No Longer Fresh—Starting from the Metaphors in Spring”
http://blog.teacher.com.cn/blog/3505/archives/2006/58756.shtml
(7) Liu Xie, annotated by Zhou Zhenfu, The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons, Taipei: Liren, 1984, p. 677.
(8) Chen Wangdao, Foundations of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang, 1964, p. 76.
(9) See Cai Xiuzhi, “Triangle Park: Urban Text and Spatial Reading”: “The symbolic system of space has multiple layers of meaning. A simple spatial symbol consists of the signifier and the signified. The signifier of a spatial symbol is the expressive part of the symbol; the signified is its content part. According to Hjelmslev’s semiotic analysis, both the expression and content of each sign have aspects of form and substance.” Roland Barthes calls a sign something composed of a signifier and a signified. To give a simple example, when we see the character “pig” (sign) and understand its meaning, it is because the written form composed of strokes—pig (signifier)—is combined with the conceptual content of an animal with four legs, a short tail, and whose meat is a staple food for humans (signified). The sign “pig” can further become the signifier of another sign; for example, calling someone a “pig” signifies laziness or stupidity. It should be noted that the relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary and even unstable, often the result of power operations within a specific historical culture. Semiotics aims to deconstruct the relationship between signifier and signified and examine how meaning is produced within culture through such power operations.
(10) “On Comparison,” by Du Songbai, included in Poetry and Poetics, Taiwan Wunan Publishing, 1987, p. 149.
(11) Translation of “Song of Everlasting Regret,” translated by Sha Lingna, included in Three Hundred Tang Poems, Taipei: Ancient Books Publishing House, 1996, p. 167.
(12) Chen Wangdao, Foundations of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang Publishing, 1964, p. 136.
(13) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 321.
(14) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 36.
(15) Edited by Cheng Weijun and others (1991), Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 499.
(16) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 50.
(17) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 327.
(18) Edited by Yang Chunlin and Liu Fan, Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Arts, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p. 2.
(19) From Zheng Chouyu, Collected Poems of Zheng Chouyu I, Taipei: Hongfan Bookstore, 1982, p. 123.
(20) From Yu Guangzhong, Selected Poems of Yu Guangzhong I, Taipei: Hongfan Bookstore, 1981, pp. 226–227.
(21) From Xiong Hong, Collected Poems of Xiong Hong, Taipei: New Ideal, 1976, pp. 103–105.
(22) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, pp. 328–329.
(23) Edited by Yang Chunlin and Liu Fan, Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Arts, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p. 9.
(24) Aristotle, translated by Yao Yiwei, Poetics, “Chapter 22,” Taipei: Taiwan Zhonghua, 1982, p. 176.
(25) From Zheng Chouyu, Collected Poems of Zheng Chouyu I, Taipei: Hongfan Bookstore, 1982, pp. 57–58.
(26) From Xiang Ming, Entanglements Carried Along, Taipei: Erya, 1994, pp. 69–70.
(27) From Xiong Hong, Collected Poems of Xiong Hong, Taipei: New Ideal, 1976, p. 172.
(28) From Yang Mu, Themes of Time, Taipei: Hongfan, 1998, pp. 54–55.
(29) “The basic structure of elliptical metaphor is A (vehicle) — B (tenor) (note: this should be ‘tenor’; Shen follows Huang Qingxuan’s earlier terminology) — B (vehicle). Among the components of metaphor—tenor, comparative word, and vehicle—the comparative word is omitted. However, the tenor and vehicle still maintain a relation of similarity as in simile, rather than the combinative relation of metaphor.” p. 42. See Shen Qian, Rhetoric (Vol. 1), Taipei: National Open University, 1991, p. 42.
(30) Chen Wangdao, Foundations of Rhetoric, Hong Kong: Daguang, 1964, p. 80.
(31) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 44.
(32) From Collected Poems of Yang Huan, edited by Guiren, Taipei: Hongfan, 2005, p. 89.
(33) From Ye Weilian, The Story of Wildflowers, Taipei: Chinese and Foreign Literature, 1975, p. 83.
(34) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 334.
(35) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 45.
(36) Edited by Cheng Weijun and others (1991), Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, p. 494.
(37) From Ya Xian, Collected Poems of Ya Xian, Taipei: Hongfan Bookstore, 1981, p. 277.
(38) From Shen Huamo, Every Sentence Is Because of You, Taipei: Yuan Shen, 1991, p. 127.
(39) From Luo Renling, Code, Taipei: Mandala Creative Studio, 1990, p. 165.
(40) From Jiao Tong, Insomnia Songs, Taipei: Erya, 1993, p. 72.
(41) Huang Qingxuan, Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 338.
(42) Edited by Lu Jiaxiang and Chi Taining, Dictionary of Examples of Rhetorical Methods, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1991, p. 19.
(43) From Collected Poems of Yang Huan, edited by Guiren, Taipei: Hongfan, 2005, p. 27.
(44) From Xia Yu, Ventriloquism, Taipei: Modern Poetry Quarterly, 1997, p. 70.
(45) From Walis Nokan, Thinking of the Tribe, Taipei: Morning Star, 1994, pp. 103–106.
(46) Edited by Yang Chunlin and Liu Fan, Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Arts, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing, 1991, p. 19.
(47) Huang Qingxuan (2002), Rhetoric, Taipei: Sanmin, 2002, p. 341.
(48) Edited by Wu Zhankun (1990), General Theory of Common Rhetorical Figures, Shijiazhuang: Hebei Education, p. 28.
(49) From Yin Di, Scenes Within a Day, Taipei: Erya, 1996, pp. 98–100.
(50) From Zhang Mo, Selected Century Poems of Zhang Mo, Taipei: Erya, 2000, pp. 128–129.
(51) From Xi Murong, Nine Pieces of Time, Taipei: Yuan Shen, 2006, pp. 66–69.
(52) From Chen Kehua, Poems Worth Beheading, Taipei: Jiuge, 1995, pp. 26–29.
(53) Edited by Cheng Weijun and others, Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 502.
(54) From Luo Renling, Flying Against the Light, Taipei: Rye Field, 1998, pp. 55–56.
(55) From Chen Jiadai, The Soul of the City, Taipei: Bookman, 1991, pp. 77–80.
(56) From Video Poetics, Taipei: Bookman, 1988, pp. 74–79.
(57) From Yang Mu, Collected Poems of Yang Mu II: 1974–1985, Taipei: Hongfan, 1995, pp. 241–259.
(58) Edited by Cheng Weijun and others, Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, p. 502.
(59) Huang Lizhen, Practical Rhetoric (Revised Edition), Taipei: Guojia, 2004, p. 54.
(60) From Guan Guan, Selected Century Poems of Guan Guan, Taipei: Erya, 2000, p. 32.
(61) Edited by Cheng Weijun and others, Comprehensive Guide to Rhetoric, Beijing: China Youth, 1991, pp. 500–501.
(62) Edited by Lu Jiaxiang and Chi Taining, Dictionary of Examples of Rhetorical Methods, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education, 1991, pp. 12–13.
(63) From Zhang Cuo, A Man of Vicissitudes, Taipei: Rye Field, 1994, pp. 29–31.
(64) From Xi Murong, Qilixiang, Taipei: Yuan Shen, 2005, pp. 38–39.
