Chapter 7: Syntax, Linguistic Errors, and Language Obstacles in Modern Poetry

Section 1: Grammar and Grammatical Units
I. Definition and Units of Grammar
(1) Definition of Grammar
Organizing linguistic units so that they become a tool for expressing feelings and conveying meaning; this set of rules is called “grammar.” Grammatical rules mainly refer to (1) rules of word variation and (2) rules for using words to form sentences.

Chinese is an isolating language, lacking morphological changes of words, unlike phonetic Indo-European languages, where changes in pronunciation and spelling of the word form can clearly mark parts of speech.
For example: beauty: nice, pretty (noun); beautiful person: beauty (noun); beautiful: beautiful (adjective); beautifully: beautifully (adverb)

(2) Grammatical Units
These include morphemes, words, phrases, sentences, and sentence groups—five types in total. In Wenxin Diaolong (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons), “Chapter and Sentence”: “When people establish discourse, they generate sentences from characters, accumulate sentences to form sections, and accumulate sections to form an essay.” This clearly explains the generative relationship and hierarchical organization among characters, sentences, sections, and chapters.

1. Morpheme
   The smallest sound-meaning combination unit, and also the smallest grammatical unit.
   (1) Monosyllabic morphemes: flower, insect, bird, fish, moon
   (2) Disyllabic morphemes: grape, glass, insect, radish, cough
   (3) Polysyllabic morphemes: Rolex, chocolate, chlorophyll
2. Word
   A word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently. Being used independently means it can be spoken alone or enter a sentence independently without combining with other specific linguistic components. Its features include:
   (1) It has its own semantic meaning
   (2) It can be spoken alone or answer a question independently
   (3) It is the smallest independently usable linguistic unit

For example: poet.
Question: What does Xu Zhimo do?
Answer: Poet, and also a university teacher.

“Poet” cannot be separated semantically into “poem” and “person”; similarly “teacher” cannot be separated into “teach” and “master.” Chinese lexical items, unlike alphabetic languages, do not have explicit morphological markers of part of speech; many situations must be determined through contextual relations.

(3) Classification of Word Structure

1. Simple words: formed by one morpheme; in phonology, monosyllabic words are more numerous, such as: heaven, person, you, I, high, big, come, see, just, then, be.
2. Compound words: formed by two or more morphemes, divided into three types:
   (1) Reduplication: grandmother, softly, crickets, sparkling, shy, stiff, foolishly playful
   (2) Derivation: reader, poet, tiger, piglet
   (3) Compounding: people, sound, friendship, kraft paper, magnifying glass, gym
3. Contracted words: words formed by shortening full phrases (word groups) representing things into several morphemes and then recombining them in the original order. For example: NTU, CPC, four seasons, metro, Taiwan Railways, Taiwan Shipbuilding, agricultural and sideline products
4. Phrase (word group)
   Words combined according to certain rules to express a certain meaning form phrases, also called word groups. Morphemes are smaller linguistic units than words, and phrases are larger linguistic units than words. A phrase can also combine with one or several words to form more complex phrases. For example: “Here there are upright cooking smoke / and sleepy camel bells” (Zheng Chouyu, “The Visitor at Dusk”), “sleepy” is a complement-type phrase; combined with “camel bells,” it forms a complex phrase. Phrases can be further divided into:

(1) Content-word phrases
Phrases formed by content words and content words, also called word groups; they are important sentence-building units. If such a phrase has a head word, its grammatical function in sentences is consistent with the head word. For example, “red flower” and “flower” (noun) share the same function; “loud shouting” and “shouting” (verb) share the same function. Therefore, phrases centered on a certain type of word are called phrases of that word type.

① Noun phrases
our class; a poem; long hair; a cute girl

Poetry example:
“Picking Teeth” / Luo Fu
(excerpt from later section)
A group of Ethiopian vultures
from a pile of corpses
take flight
perching in rows
on sparse dead trees
also picking teeth
with each slender
rib bone

“A group of vultures,” “a pile of corpses,” and “each slender rib bone” are all noun phrases; the first two include quantity markers, and the third includes both quantity and adjective markers.

② Verb phrases
finish writing; invite him over; understand when reading; sing very well; study diligently

“Sweet Revenge” / Hsia Yu
Add some salt to your shadow
pickle it
air-dry it
when old
use it as wine accompaniment

“pickle it” is a verb phrase expressing a process of action. What does it taste like to “pickle a shadow / as wine accompaniment”? Readers may savor it.

③ Adjective phrases
very big; becoming dark; warming up; extremely anxious; so happy one jumps up

“What Are They Thinking About” / Hsueh Li
Buttons point at collars
rainy winter days
you are always damp
collars pull at sleeves
isn’t it also annoying
you know how hard it is to be a leader

Blame the weather, which makes people
forget the hardness of summer and the softness of autumn
At night, I get up to check on them
still quietly leaning against the wall, full of thoughts

“the hardness of summer” and “the softness of autumn” are two adjective phrases expressing the poet’s entirely different subjective feelings toward these seasons.

④ Subject–predicate phrases
I go; headache; body weak; study diligently

“Therefore, I go, always wearing a blue gown” (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”), in which “I go” is a subject–predicate phrase.

(2) Content–function phrases
Phrases composed of one content word and one function word.
“Let the Wind Recite” / Yang Mu:
At that time you let me write a poem
of spring, written on the chest
the rhythm of heartbeat, the cadence of blood
the image of breast, the metaphor of mole
I lay you flat on the warm lake surface
let the wind recite (excerpt)

“the rhythm of heartbeat, the cadence of blood / the image of breast, the metaphor of mole” consists of four concrete images (heartbeat, blood, breast, mole) paired with four abstract images (rhythm, cadence, image, metaphor), forming four content–function complementary phrases, presented layer by layer in a collage-like manner.

(3) Fixed phrases
Mainly fixed combinations composed of content words (sometimes including function words). Mostly four-character forms, also called “four-character structures.” They are divided into:
① noun-based: mountains and rivers, delicacies, nonexistent things, frog in a well
② verb-based: orderly, gesturing, looking around, playing the lute to a cow
③ adjective-based: open and aboveboard, flashy but impractical, complacent, lighter than a feather
④ subject–predicate: straightforward in speech, head broken and bleeding, seamless, exhausted talent

1. Sentence
   A sentence is a linguistic unit that expresses a complete meaning and has a certain intonation before and after. It is the smallest unit of language use; speaking and writing generally require sentences. Sentences can be divided into:

(1) Subject–predicate sentences and non–subject–predicate sentences
Subject–predicate sentences are composed of a subject and a predicate. They can be further classified according to the type of predicate:

① Verb-predicate sentences: predicate is a verb
I have a new poetry collection. You return this book to him. I work in Hsinchu City. Please call Lao Ma here.

② Adjective-predicate sentences: predicate is an adjective
Today is very stuffy and hot. The apples are almost ripe. He is sweating all over in anxiety.
“My horse’s hoofbeats are a beautiful mistake” (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistake”)

③ Noun-predicate sentences: predicate is a noun
Every day is Sunday. He is tall with big eyes. Xiao Wang is about thirty years old.

④ Subject–predicate phrase sentences: predicate is a subject–predicate phrase
I have a headache. He studies very attentively. The mountains are full of falling red leaves.

(2) Simple sentences and complex sentences
A simple sentence contains only one subject–predicate phrase or predicate.
A complex sentence contains two or more sentences that are related in meaning.
You don’t go, I don’t go either.
If it snows tomorrow, we will go to Hehuanshan.
I have watched this movie online; I won’t go with you tonight.

Each clause in a complex sentence is independent and not included in the other (i.e., one clause is not a component of another).
“I hope that this day will come soon.” This is a simple sentence, not a complex sentence; “this day will come soon” is the object of “hope.”

1. Sentence group
   Sentences can be connected to form larger units, becoming sentence groups or discourse segments, or even full texts.

Section 2: Word Classification and Functional Classification of Sentences

I. Classification of Words
According to grammatical function, words are divided into content words and function words.

(1) Content words: can serve as sentence components and carry concrete lexical meaning. They are further divided into:

1. Nouns: water, moon, insect, bird, table, country, science, tomorrow, outside, inside
2. Verbs: go, understand, like, be, wake, can, should
3. Adjectives: red, great, fat, happy, free, correct
4. Numerals: ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, hundred million
5. Classifiers: piece, item, jin (unit of weight), second, set, time, occurrence, pair
6. Pronouns: you, they, each, this, that, how
7. Adverbs: very, again, all, forever, gradually, personally

(2) Function words: cannot independently serve as sentence components; they mainly express grammatical meaning, mood, or emotion.
8. Prepositions: at, from, self, toward, by, to, give
9. Conjunctions: and, with, because, although, therefore, even if

1. Particles:
   (1) Structural particles: de (的), de (地), de (得), deng (等), suo (所)
   (2) Aspect particles: le (了), zhe (著), guo (過), lai zhe (來著)
   (3) Modal particles: ah, ne, ba, ya, de, le, ma
2. Onomatopoeic words: bang, moo, dongdong, dada, chirp, drip, crackle
3. Interjections: sigh, hum

Rhetorical devices closely related to word class mainly include “conversion of part of speech” (word-class transformation); those related to meaning include “pun” (one word, two meanings) and “ambiguity” (one word, multiple meanings). Among these, beginners in creative writing most often misuse part-of-speech conversion.

II. Functional Classification of Sentences
Sentences are units of language and also units of speech. The purpose of speaking is communication: exchanging thoughts and expressing emotions. According to communicative function, sentences can be divided into five types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, and responsive sentences. Interrogative, imperative, and responsive sentences usually appear in dialogue contexts.

(1) Declarative sentences
These are narrative, descriptive, explanatory, or argumentative sentences that provide information to the listener or reader. In non-dialogue contexts, declarative sentences appear most frequently. They may be active or passive, affirmative or negative. The counterpart of declarative sentences is the rhetorical question. Declarative sentences can be further divided into four types:

1. Narrative style
   Sentences that narrate actions, behaviors, and the development of events. Narrative style usually contains temporal expressions indicating action or event progression, distinguishing it from descriptive, expository, or argumentative styles.
   (1) Anyway after the great famine there will still be talk of war (Zheng Chouyu, “Journey”)
   (2) In the year of Xuantong, the wind blows / blows that string of red corn (Ya Xian, “Red Corn”)
   (3) How can I meet you / at my most beautiful moment (Xi Murong, “A Tree in Bloom”)
2. Descriptive style
   Describes the appearance, form, or characteristics of people or objects; usually static with no temporal progression.
   (1) At sixteen her name already drifted through the city / a sorrowful rhythm (Ya Xian, “Kunling”)
   (2) His voice is like snow, cold without meaning / his face like an autumn fan, folding away the storm of an entire summer (Luo Fu, “Death in the Stone Chamber” VI)
   (3) I swallow sand and stones / I chew cement / I drink buckets and buckets of water / I am that big-mouthed, big-bellied / mixer (Xiang Ming, “Majestic”)
3. Explanatory style
   Explains the nature, features, and usage of things. Includes noun-predicate sentences, “shi” (be) sentences, and sentences using the aspect particle “guo.”
   (1) I want her to feel it is the arrival of a season or migratory birds / because I am not someone who often returns home (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”)
   (2) The hoofbeats of horses are a beautiful mistake / I am not a returning traveler, I am a passerby (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistake”)
   (3) I have been a husband, a father, and almost gone through it all (Zheng Chouyu, “Journey”)
4. Argumentative style
   Also called expository or reasoning style; used to explain and argue a viewpoint. Such poetic works are more intellectual and aim to persuade readers to accept certain ideas as creative motivation.
   (1) Darkness gave me dark eyes / yet I use them to search for light (Gu Cheng, “Black Eyes”)
   (2) A handful of banknotes / once could buy / a smile; a handful of banknotes / now can buy / not just / a smile (Fei Ma, “Inflation”)
   (3) Open / the birdcage / door / let the bird fly / away; return freedom / to / the bird / cage (Fei Ma, “Birdcage”)

(2) Interrogative sentences
Ask questions to obtain information from others, mainly appearing in dialogue. Typical interrogative sentences neither affirm nor deny anything. They are usually short and structurally simple.

1. Whom does war sit here crying for? Its laughter once caused seventy thousand souls to sink into a realm deeper than sleep (Luo Men, “McKinley Fortress”)
2. I do not know whether this is me? A-Yu / it is written on the tribal contract / because of its appearance / my cultivated land and childhood memories / were torn away like paper (Xiang Yang, “My Surname”)
3. Yet the detached mind still often carries longing / distant island country── / are the maple leaves still intoxicated? / is the sake still warm? / does heroic spirit still remain? / does sentiment still linger? (Zhang Cuo, “Mountain Dwelling”)

(3) Imperative sentences
Express requests, commands, discouragement, or prohibitions; mostly appear in dialogue.

1. And I, how I wish my profession / were merely striking the bell of my childhood schoolroom / because I am already at this age── / the age when woodpeckers stand on my arm (Zheng Chouyu, “Beinan Aboriginal Village”)
2. You stop in amazement / as if to say to someone── “Listen!” / as if all the secrets of the world / should be shared by two people (Zhang Cuo, “Broken Beauty”)

(4) Exclamatory sentences
Mainly express strong emotions (joy, admiration, anger, sorrow, disgust, surprise, etc.), not new information. Their structure is generally simple. Common adverbs: how, so, very, too, extremely.

1. How easy a sentence to say! / how easily a noun can move people! / one may weep at midnight and regret, / or run out at dawn / to face the melting early spring snow (Zhang Cuo, “Confusion”)
2. What a heavy burden of wishes! / what a long lifetime of dreams! (Zhang Cuo, “Key of Copper”)
3. At the age of one hundred / I sit in a dim corner / writing weak sorrowful letters: / “Poor / constantly gaining weight / an ever-disappearing / pure contradiction.” (Hsia Yu, “Simple Future Tense”)

(5) Responsive sentences
Used for addressing people and responding to calls, divided into two types:

1. Calling sentences: used to attract the listener’s attention.
   ① Baseness is the passport of the base, / nobility is the epitaph of the noble, / look, in that gilded sky, / float the twisted shadows of the dead (Bei Dao, “Answer”)
   ② Ah, don’t you see the autumn leaves falling / though I am a wanderer, I should find my home (Ya Xian, “My Soul”)
2. Response sentences: reactions to calls, often beginning with “I know,” “yes,” “oh,” “mm,” etc.
   ① Yes, tomorrow afternoon / shoes will inevitably carry us back here again (Ya Xian, “Bar Afternoon”)
   ② In China (how would I know what day of the lunar calendar it is?) / it should be after Qingming, waiting for Duanwu (Yu Guangzhong, “Percussion”)
   ③ Your eyes see this fire, / yet you do not see me, though I ignite it for you; / alas, what burns is merely a mature era, / yours and mine—we are separated like mountains! (Mu Dan, “Eight Poems” 1)

III. Structural Relations of Words and Basic Sentence Patterns

1. Coordinate relation
   The elements in the combination (words or phrases) are of equal status.
2. Spring flowers and autumn leaves
3. Young and beautiful
4. Red and green
5. both unity and struggle

“In my view, loneliness and waiting are good for women” (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”): “loneliness and waiting” form an equal coordinate phrase linked by “and.”

1. Modifier–head relation
   The first element modifies (restricts or describes) the second; the first is the modifier, the second the head.
2. many
3. immature
4. sister’s book
5. working diligently
6. beautiful island
7. doing extremely difficult work

Poetry example:
“Anyway I have returned to the mountain gate, so I delay entering / and recite a few lines of crossing, drinking, pecking …” (Zheng Chouyu, “Buddhist Chant”)
Here “a few” is a numeral classifier; “crossing,” “drinking,” “pecking” are nominalized verbs serving as heads, forming modifier–head relations.

1. Verb–object relation
   The first element expresses action or judgment; the second expresses the object involved.
2. dig a hole
3. drive a car
4. be a teacher
5. go to Taipei
6. learn English
7. Complement relation
   The first element expresses an action or state; the second explains the result or degree. The first is a verb/adjective predicate; the second is a complement.
8. go for a while
9. hear clearly
10. stay for a few days
11. move toward light
12. very clean
13. so angry that one cannot speak

Chapter Seven: Syntax, Language Errors, and Language Disorders in Modern Poetry
Section One: Grammar and Grammatical Units

I. Definition and Units of Grammar

(1) Definition of Grammar

Organizing linguistic units so that they become a tool for expressing feelings and conveying meaning; this set of rules is called “grammar.” Grammatical rules mainly refer to (1) the rules of word variation and (2) the rules for using words to form sentences.

Chinese is an isolating language and lacks morphological changes of words. It is not like Indo-European phonetic languages, where changes in pronunciation and writing forms of the word itself can clearly mark part of speech.

For example:
beauty: nice, pretty (noun);
beauty: beauty (noun);
beautiful: beautiful (adjective);
beautifully: beautifully (adverb)

(2) Grammatical Units

Include morphemes, words, phrases, sentences, and sentence groups—these five types. In Wenxin Diaolong (The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons), “Chapter and Sentence” states: “When people establish words, they form sentences from characters; accumulating sentences forms sections; accumulating sections forms articles.” This fully explains the generative relationship and hierarchical structure among characters, sentences, sections, and chapters.

1. Morpheme
   The smallest sound-meaning combination unit, and also the smallest grammatical unit.

(1) Monosyllabic morphemes: flower, insect, bird, fish, moon
(2) Disyllabic morphemes: grape, glass, insect, radish, cough
(3) Polysyllabic morphemes: Rolex, chocolate, chlorophyll

1. Word
   A word is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used. Being independently usable means it can be used alone or independently enter a sentence without combining with other specific linguistic components. Its features are:
   (1) It has its own lexical meaning
   (2) It can be spoken alone or independently answer a question
   (3) It is the smallest independently usable linguistic unit

For example: poet.
Question: What does Xu Zhimo do?
Answer: Poet, also a university teacher.

“Poet” cannot be split in meaning into “poetry” and “person”; likewise “teacher” cannot be split into “teach” and “master.” Chinese words, unlike phonetic writing systems, do not have obvious morphological markers of part of speech; many situations must be determined through context.

(3) Classification of Word Formation

1. Simple words: formed by one morpheme. In sound, monosyllabic words are more numerous, such as: sky, person, you, I, high, big, come, see, just, then, be.
2. Compound words: formed by two or more morphemes. Their formation types are as follows:

(1) Reduplication: grandmother, slightly, cicada-like insects, sparkling, shy, stiff, foolishly
(2) Derivation: reader, poet, tiger, piglet
(3) Compounding: people, sound, friendship, kraft paper, magnifying glass, gym

1. Blended/contracted words: words formed by shortening a full name phrase (or phrase) of an object into several morphemes and recombining them in the original order. For example: NTU, CPC, four seasons, subway, Taiwan Railways, Taiwan Shipbuilding, agricultural and sideline products
2. Phrase (word group)
   Words combined according to certain rules to express a certain meaning become phrases, also called word groups. Morphemes are smaller than words; phrases are larger than words. A phrase can also combine with one or several words to form a more complex phrase. For example: “There are upright cooking smoke here / and sleepy camel bells” (Zheng Chouyu, “Evening Visitor”), “sleepy” is a complement relation phrase; adding “camel bells” forms a complex phrase. Phrases are further divided into:

(1) Content-word phrases
Phrases formed by content words; also called word groups. If such phrases have a head word, their function in sentence formation is consistent with the head word. For example, “red flower” and “flower” (noun) have the same function; “loud shouting” and “shout” (verb) have the same function. Therefore, phrases centered on a certain type of word are called that type of word phrases.

① Noun phrases
our class; a poem; long hair; a lovely girl

Poetry example:
“Picking Teeth” / Luo Fu
(excerpt of later part)

A group of vultures in Ethiopia
from a pile of corpses
rise
perching in rows on
sparse dead trees
also picking their teeth
with one by one thin
ribs

“A group of vultures,” “a pile of corpses,” and “one by one thin ribs” are all noun phrases; the first two are combined with numerals, and the third adds an adjective in addition to numerals.

② Verb phrases
finish writing; invite him; understand when seen; sing very well; study seriously

“Sweet Revenge” / Xia Yu
Add a little salt to your shadow
pickle it
air-dry it
when old
use it as wine accompaniment

“pickle it” is a verb phrase, indicating a process of action. What does “pickle the shadow / as wine accompaniment” taste like? Readers may savor it.

③ Adjective phrases
very big; become dark; become warm; extremely anxious; so happy as to jump up

“What Are They Thinking” / Xue Li
Buttons point at collars
in rainy winters
you are always unable to stay dry

Collar pulls up sleeves
does it not also provoke annoyance

You know how difficult leadership is

Blame the weather, making people
forget the hardness of summer and the softness of autumn
At night, I get up to visit them
still quietly leaning against the wall, full of thoughts

“the hardness of summer” and “the softness of autumn” are two adjective phrases expressing the poet’s completely different subjective feelings toward these two seasons.

④ Subject-predicate phrases
I go; headache; body thin; study diligently

“So, I go, always wearing a blue shirt” (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”), in which “I go” is a subject-predicate (subject + predicate) phrase.

(2) Content–function mixed phrases
Phrases composed jointly of a content word and a function word.

“Let the Wind Recite” / Yang Mu:
At that time you asked me to write a poem
of spring, written on the chest
the rhythm of heartbeat, the rhythm of blood
the image of breast, the metaphor of mole
I lay you flat on the warm lake surface
let the wind recite (excerpt)

“the rhythm of heartbeat, the rhythm of blood / the image of breast, the metaphor of mole” in these two lines are respectively composed of four concrete images (heartbeat, blood, breast, mole) paired with four abstract images (rhythm, rhythm, image, metaphor), forming four content–function complementary phrases, presented in a collage-like way from inside to outside.

(3) Fixed phrases
Mainly fixed combinations composed of content words (sometimes including function words). Mostly four-character structures, also called “four-character grid.”

They are divided into:
① Noun-based: countless mountains and rivers; delicacies from mountains and seas; empty fiction; frog in a well
② Verb-based: orderly; gesturing wildly; looking left and right; playing the lute to a cow
③ Adjective-based: upright and aboveboard; flashy but impractical; self-satisfied; lighter than a feather
④ Subject-predicate based: outspoken; bloodied head; flawless; exhausted talent

1. Sentence
   A sentence is a linguistic unit that expresses a complete meaning and has a certain intonation before and after. It is the smallest unit of language use; speaking and writing generally require a sentence. Sentences can be divided into:

(1) Subject-predicate sentences and non-subject-predicate sentences

Subject-predicate sentences are sentences composed of a subject and a predicate. According to the type of predicate, they can be classified as follows:

① Verb-predicate sentences: predicate is a verb
I have a new poetry collection. You return this book to him. I work in Hsinchu City. Please ask Lao Ma to come.

② Adjective-predicate sentences: predicate is an adjective
Today is very hot. Apples are about to ripen. He was so anxious that he broke into sweat.
“My horse’s hooves tapping are a beautiful mistake” (Zheng Chouyu, “Error”)

③ Noun-predicate sentences: predicate is a noun
Every day is Sunday. He is tall, big eyes. Xiao Wang is about thirty.

④ Subject-predicate phrase sentences: predicate is a subject-predicate phrase
I have a headache. He studies very diligently. Red leaves flutter on the mountain.

(2) Single sentences and compound sentences

A single sentence contains only one subject-predicate phrase or predicate.
A compound sentence contains two or more sentences that are connected in meaning.
You do not go, I also do not go.
If it snows tomorrow, we will go to Hehuan Mountain.
I have seen this movie online; I will not go watch it with you tonight.

Each clause in a compound sentence is separated and does not include one another (i.e., one clause is not a component of another clause).
“I expect this day to come soon” is a single sentence, not a compound sentence; “this day to come soon” is the object of “expect.”

1. Sentence group
   Sentences can be connected to form larger units, becoming sentence groups or discourse segments, and even full texts.

——

Section Two: Word Classification and Functional Classification of Sentences

I. Classification of Words

According to grammatical function, words are divided into content words and function words.

(1) Content words: can serve as sentence components and have concrete lexical meaning. They are divided into:

1. Nouns: water, moon, insect, bird, table, country, science, tomorrow, outside, inside
2. Verbs: walk, understand, like, be, wake, can, should
3. Adjectives: red, great, fat, happy, free, correct
4. Numerals: ten, hundred, thousand, ten thousand, hundred million
5. Classifiers: piece, item, jin (catty), second, set, time, round, pair
6. Pronouns: you, they, each, this, that, how
7. Adverbs: very, again, all, forever, gradually, personally

(2) Function words: cannot independently serve as sentence components; mainly express grammatical meaning, mood, or emotion.

1. Prepositions: at, from, self, toward, by, for, to
2. Conjunctions: and, with, because, although, therefore, even if
3. Particles:
   (1) Structural particles: de, di, de, etc., suo
   (2) Aspect particles: le, zhe, guo, lai zhe
   (3) Modal particles: ah, ne, ba, ya, de, le, ma
4. Onomatopoeia: bang, moo, dongdong, dada, chirp, dripping, crackling
5. Interjections: alas, hmph

Rhetorical devices closely related to word class mainly include “transposition” (conversion of part of speech); those related to word meaning include “pun” (one word, two meanings) and “ambiguity” (one word, multiple meanings). Among these, beginners in creative writing most often misuse “transposition.”

II. Functional Classification of Sentences

A sentence is both a linguistic unit and a unit of speech. The purpose of speaking is communication: exchanging thoughts and expressing emotions. According to communicative function, sentences are divided into five types: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory, and responsive sentences. Interrogative, imperative, and responsive sentences generally appear in dialogue situations.

(1) Declarative sentences

These are narrative, descriptive, explanatory, or argumentative sentences; they provide information to the listener or reader. In non-dialogue contexts, declarative sentences appear most frequently. They may be active or passive, affirmative or negative. The corresponding opposite of declarative sentences is rhetorical questions. Declarative sentences can be divided into four types:

1. Narrative style
   Sentences that narrate actions, behaviors, and the development of events. In narrative style, there is always a time-related word indicating action or event progression, which distinguishes it from descriptive, explanatory, and argumentative styles.

(1) After all, after the great famine year, we will still talk about war (Zheng Chouyu, “Journey”)
(2) The wind of the Xuantong year blows / blows that string of red corn (Ya Xian, “Red Corn”)
(3) How can I let you meet me / at my most beautiful moment (Xi Murong, “A Flowering Tree”)

1. Descriptive style
   Describes the appearance, form, or characteristics of people or objects; usually static description without temporality.

(1) At sixteen, her name already drifted through the city / a mournful rhythm (Ya Xian, “Opera Actress”)
(2) His voice is like snow, cold without meaning / face like an autumn fan, folding in the storm of an entire summer
(Luo Fu, “Death of the Stone Chamber”) VI
(3) I swallow sand and stone / I chew cement / I drink bucket after bucket of water / I am the huge-mouthed, big-bellied / mixer

1. Explanatory style
   Explains the nature, characteristics, and uses of things, including noun-predicate sentences, “shi” (is) copular sentences, and sentences using the aspect particle “guo.”

(1) I want her to feel that it is the arrival of seasons or migratory birds / because I am not the kind of person who often goes home (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”)
(2) The sound of horse hooves is a beautiful mistake / I am not a returnee, I am a passerby (Zheng Chouyu, “Error”)
(3) I have once been a husband, a father, and almost walked through (Zheng Chouyu, “Journey”)

1. Expository/argumentative style
   Also called argumentative style; its function is to explain and argue a viewpoint. Such poetic works are more intellectual in nature and aim to persuade readers to accept certain viewpoints of the author.

(1) Darkness gave me dark eyes / yet I use them to search for light (Gu Cheng, “Black Eyes”)
(2) A handful of banknotes / once could buy / a smile; a handful of banknotes / now can buy / more than / a smile (Fei Ma, “Inflation”)
(3) Open / the door / of the birdcage / let the bird fly / away; return freedom / to the / bird / cage (Fei Ma, “Birdcage”)

(2) Interrogative sentences

They raise questions so that the other party can obtain information; mainly appear in dialogue. Typical interrogative sentences neither affirm nor deny anything. They are generally short and structurally simple.

1. Who is war sitting here crying for? Its laughter once caused seventy thousand souls to fall into a region deeper than sleep (Luo Men, “Fort McKinley”)
2. I do not know whether this is me? A-Yu / it is written on the tribal document / because of its appearance / my cultivated land and childhood memories / are torn away like paper (Xiang Yang, “My Surname”)
3. Yet the indifferent mood still carries concern / distant island nation— / are the maple leaves still drunk? / is the sake still warm? / does heroism still exist? / is romance still there? (Zhang Cuo, “Mountain Dwelling”)

(3) Imperative sentences

Express requests, commands, discouragement, or prohibition; mostly appear in dialogue.

1. And I greatly wish my profession / is merely striking the bell in my chest / of the elementary school classroom / because I am already of this age— / the age of a woodpecker standing on my arm (Zheng Chouyu, “Puyuma Tribe”)
2. You, stopping in ecstasy, as if to say to someone—“Listen!” / as if all the secrets of the world / should be shared by two people (Zhang Cuo, “Broken Beauty”)

(4) Exclamatory sentences

Mainly express emotions and strong feelings (joy, admiration, anger, sorrow, disgust, surprise, etc.), rather than providing new information. Their structure is generally simple. The following adverbs are commonly used: very, how, so, too, extremely.

1. How easy a sentence to say! / How easy a noun to be moved! / It can even weep at midnight and regret, / and run out in the early morning / facing the first spring when ice and snow melt (Zhang Cuo, “Melancholy”)
2. What a heavy burden of wishes! / What a long life of dreams! (Zhang Cuo, “Key of Copper”)
3. At the age of one hundred / I squat in a dim corner / writing weak sentimental letters: / “poor / and continuously gaining weight / an eternal / pure contradiction.” (Xia Yu, “Simple Future Tense”)

(5) Responsive sentences

Used for greeting others and responding to greetings; divided into two types:

1. Greeting sentences: function is to attract the listener’s attention.

① Baseness is the passport of the base, / nobility is the tombstone of the noble, / look, in that gilded sky, / are filled with the twisted shadows of the dead. (Bei Dao, “Answer”)
② Ah, do you not see autumn leaves falling one after another / though I am a wanderer, I should also look for my home (Ya Xian, “My Soul”)

1. Response sentences: reactions to greetings, often starting with “I know,” “yes,” “oh,” “mm,” etc.

① Yes, tomorrow afternoon / the shoes will inevitably carry us here again (Ya Xian, “Afternoon in the Bar”)
② In China (you ask me what day of the lunar calendar it is, how would I know?) / it should be after Qingming, waiting for Duanwu (Yu Guangzhong, “Percussion”)
③ Your eyes see this fire disaster, / you do not see me, although I ignite for you; / alas, what is burning is only the mature years, / yours and mine. We are separated like great mountains! (Mu Dan, “Eight Poems” 1)

——

Section Three: Structural Relations of Words and Basic Sentence Patterns

I. Structural Relations of Words

(1) Coordinative relation
All items in the combination (words or phrases) are equal in status.

1. Spring flowers and autumn leaves
2. Young and beautiful
3. Red and green
4. Both united and struggling

“I think, solitude and waiting are good for women” (Zheng Chouyu, “Mistress”). “solitude and waiting” is a group of coordinate phrases, linked by the connector “and,” forming a coordinative relation.

(2) Modifier–head relation
The preceding element modifies (restricts or describes) the following element; the first is the modifier, the second is the head.

1. many
2. immature
3. sister’s book
4. working diligently
5. beautiful island
6. extremely difficult work being done

Poetry example:
“After all I have returned to the mountain gate, let’s enter a little later / and recite some crossing, some drinking, some pecking…” (Zheng Chouyu, “Buddhist Chant”). “some” is a quantifier; “crossing,” “drinking,” “pecking” are nominalized verbs serving as heads, forming quantifier–head modification.

(3) Verb–object relation
The preceding element indicates an action or judgment; the following element indicates the object involved in the action or judgment.

1. dig a pit
2. drive a car
3. be a teacher
4. go to Taipei
5. learn English

(4) Complement relation
The preceding element indicates an action or state; the following element describes the result of the action or state. The first is a verb or adjective predicate; the second is a complement.

1. go a little
2. hear clearly
3. stay a few days
4. move toward light
5. very clean
6. so angry that one cannot speak

(5) Subject–predicate relation
The preceding element indicates the agent of an action or a description (subject); the following element is the narrative explanation or description (predicate).

1. You look
2. Headache
3. The house is big
4. World peace
5. Xiao Zhang watches TV
6. Xiao Yu is a female model

II. Structural Classification of Sentences

(1) Subject-predicate sentences and non-subject-predicate sentences

1. Subject-predicate sentences

Sentences composed of a subject and a predicate. According to the nature of the predicate (type of word), they are divided into the following four types:

(1) Verb-predicate sentences: predicate is a verb
① Xiao Ma works in a factory.
② I have a new picture magazine.
③ You return this book to her.
④ My sister is a sophomore student.
⑤ Please ask Lao Wang to come.
⑥ I will go to Tamsui Station this afternoon to pick up a friend.

(2) Adjective-predicate sentences: predicate is an adjective
① Today is very hot.
② Apples are almost ripe.
③ He was so anxious that he broke into sweat.

(3) Subject-predicate predicate sentences: predicate is a subject-predicate phrase
① I have a headache.
② He studies very hard.
③ Flags flutter on the mountain.

(4) Noun-predicate sentences: predicate is a noun or noun phrase
① Today is Monday.
② He is tall, big eyes.
③ Ali is Iraqi.
④ Xiao Liu is in his twenties.

1. Non-subject-predicate sentences

Sentences not composed of subject and predicate are also called “single-part sentences.” Non-subject-predicate sentences are not omissions of subject or predicate, nor can a definite subject or predicate be restored. Therefore, they are complete sentences, not elliptical sentences. They are divided into:

(1) Impersonal sentences: sentences without a subject, also called “verb sentences.”
① Attention!
② Be careful of the train.
③ It is raining.

(2) Single-word sentences: sentences formed by a single word or noun phrase, also called “single-word sentences.”
① Noun-based: noun sentences → What a lovely child. What beautiful flowers.
② Adjective-based: adjective sentence → So cold!
③ Interjection-based: Alas!

(2) Simple sentences and compound sentences

1. Simple sentences: contain only one subject-predicate phrase (or predicate). The subject-predicate sentences and non-subject-predicate sentences mentioned above are all simple sentences.
2. Compound sentences: composed of two or more simple sentences that are connected in meaning. Each simple sentence forming a compound sentence is a clause, and there is a pause between clauses. One clause of a compound sentence cannot be a component of another clause.

① You do not go, I also do not go.
② If it does not rain tomorrow, we will go to Maokong.
③ I have watched this movie; I will not go with you tonight.

The following sentence is a simple sentence, not a compound sentence: (863)
① Cultivating children to have a healthy body is one of our important goals.
“Cultivating children to have a healthy body” is the subject of this simple sentence.

② We all know that he works actively and studies hard.
“he works actively and studies hard” is the object of the verb “know.”

III. Types of Compound Sentences

Compound sentences are divided into coordinated compound sentences, subordinate compound sentences, and multi-layer compound sentences. In modern poetry lineation, compound sentences are used very frequently, and most of them are closely connected in an up-down textual form.

(1) Coordinated compound sentences

Each clause in the compound sentence is grammatically equal, without modifying or explaining each other. They are further divided into:

1. Parallel compound sentences

The relations between clauses are complex and varied, mainly of the following three types:

(1) Parallel listing relation
Several clauses describe several related things, situations, or different aspects of the same thing. Generally there is no order of priority, and conjunctions may be omitted.

Common conjunctions:
“also,” “again,” “at the same time,” “both… and…,” “on one hand… on the other hand…,” “while… while…” etc.

Examples:
① Miss Mo’s gentleness reveals kindness, while Miss Wu’s gentleness shows sophistication.
② Several aunts drink coffee while chatting about gossip.
③ We review vocabulary every day, write words, and do exercises.
④ This is a new book, and that is also a new book.
⑤ He can speak both Japanese and English.

(2) Contrast relation
Usually composed of two clauses; the two clauses contrast or set off each other in meaning. Except for the second clause optionally beginning with “and/but” (“er”), other conjunctions are generally not used.

Common conjunction: …, and/but …

Examples:
① In rich households wine and meat rot; on the road lie frozen bones.
② Teacher Zhang teaches class 3; teacher Li teaches class 4.
③ More and more people go to Alishan; the cherry blossoms there become more and more beautiful.
④ East of the river is a cannon-shell clock; south of the bridge is a rail clock.
⑤ During the long days and nights of building the Alishan railway, difficulties kept appearing one after another, and the joy of overcoming them also kept arriving one after another.

(3) Dividing–integrating relation
There are two forms: A. general statement first, then details; B. details first, then general statement.
The general part and the detailed part are in a coordinative relation.

A. General first, then details
① There were quite a lot of visitors: some seeing people off, some carrying things, some both seeing off and carrying things.
② I have nothing to do all day; living like this for a long time becomes boring, and living too long even becomes annoying to others.

Poetry example:
“Begonia Tattoo” / Yu Guangzhong
I have always forgotten that there is a small scar on my left chest / why is it there, was it a knife / carved, or a sword / cut, or someone’s gentle lips / an un-gentle curse that kissed it? (excerpt)

B. Details first, then general statement
③ Or drinking tea, or drinking coffee, either is fine with me.
④ Sometimes daylight, sometimes full moon; it will not always be good luck.

Poetry examples:
a. “The Wanderer Returns” / Yu Guangzhong
Cuckoos call, both shores sound the same “gugu” / kapok blossoms bloom, both shores are equally brilliant (excerpt)
b. “Walking Until the Water Ends” / Zhou Mengdie
Walking until the water ends / no end, no water seen — / yet there is a faint fragrance / coldly in sight, in hearing, in clothing. (excerpt)
c. “A Bucket of Nails” / Xiang Ming
All are sharp / all have long and short / all are straight / all are naked like phalluses / always ready to thrust into a soft place (excerpt)

(5) Subject–Predicate Relation
In the combination, the preceding element indicates the agent of the action or description, called the subject; the following element is the narrative explanation or description of the preceding element, called the predicate.

1. You look.
2. Headache.
3. The house is big.
4. World peace.
5. Xiao Zhang watches television.
6. Xiao Yu is a female model.

2. Structural Classification of Sentences

(1) Subject–predicate sentences and non-subject–predicate sentences

1. Subject–predicate sentences
These are sentences composed of a subject and a predicate. According to the nature of the predicate (what type of word it is), they can be divided into the following four types:

(1) Verb-predicate sentences: predicate is a verb
① Xiao Ma works in a factory.
② I have a new illustrated magazine.
③ You return this book to her.
④ My older sister is a sophomore student.
⑤ You ask Old Wang to come over.
⑥ I will go to Tamsui Station this afternoon to pick up a friend.

(2) Adjective-predicate sentences: predicate is an adjective
① Today is very hot.
② The apples are almost ripe.
③ He is so anxious that he is sweating all over.

(3) Subject–predicate predicate sentences: predicate is a subject–predicate phrase
① I have a headache.
② He studies very diligently.
③ National flags are fluttering on the mountain.

(4) Noun-predicate sentences: predicate is a noun or noun phrase
① Today is Monday.
② He is tall, with big eyes.
③ Ali is an Iraqi.
④ Xiao Liu is in his twenties.

2. Non-subject–predicate sentences
These are sentences not composed of a subject and predicate, also called “single-component sentences.” Non-subject–predicate sentences are not sentences with omitted subjects or predicates, nor can a definite subject or predicate be restored. Therefore, they are complete sentences, not elliptical sentences. They are further divided into:

(1) Impersonal sentences: sentences without a subject, also called “verb sentences.”
① Attention!
② Be careful of the train.
③ It is raining.

(2) Single-word sentences: sentences composed of one word or one noun phrase, also called “single-word sentences.”
① Noun-based: noun sentences → Such a lovely child. What beautiful flowers!
② Adjective-based: adjective sentence → So cold!
③ Interjection-based: Sigh!

(2) Simple sentences and compound sentences

1. Simple sentence:
A simple sentence contains only one subject–predicate phrase (or predicate). The subject–predicate sentences and non-subject–predicate sentences mentioned above are all simple sentences.

2. Compound sentence
A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences that are logically connected in meaning. Each component simple sentence is a clause of the compound sentence, and there is a certain pause between clauses in speech. One clause cannot be a component of another clause.

① You do not go, I also do not go.
② If it does not rain tomorrow, we will go to Maokong.
③ I have watched this film; I will not go watch it with you tonight.

The following sentences are simple sentences, not compound sentences. (863)
① Cultivating children to have a healthy body is one of our important goals.
“Cultivating children to have a healthy body” is the subject of this simple sentence.
② We all know that he works actively and studies diligently.
“He works actively and studies diligently” is the object of the predicate verb “know.”

3. Types of compound sentences

Compound sentences are divided into coordinated compound sentences, subordinate compound sentences, and multiple compound sentences. In lineated modern poetry, compound sentences are used very frequently, and most are closely connected in an above–below textual form.

(1) Coordinated compound sentences

Each clause is grammatically equal and does not modify or explain each other. They are further divided into:

1. Parallel compound sentences

The semantic relations between clauses are diverse, mainly of the following three types:

(1) Parallel relation
Several clauses respectively narrate or describe related events, situations, or different aspects of the same thing. They are generally not ordered by priority and may not use conjunctions.

Common conjunctions:
“also,” “and,” “at the same time,” “both… and…,” “on one hand… on the other hand…,” “while…”

Examples:
① In Miss Mo’s gentleness there is kindness, in Miss Wu’s gentleness there is worldliness.
② Several aunts drink coffee while chatting and gossiping.
③ Every day we review vocabulary, write words, and do exercises.
④ This is a new book, and that is also a new book.
⑤ He can speak both Japanese and English.

(2) Contrast relation
Generally composed of two clauses, which contrast or set off each other in meaning. Except that the second clause may begin with “but,” other conjunctions are generally not used.

Common conjunctions: …, but …

Examples:
① Rich households’ meat and wine rot, while on the road frozen bones of the dead lie.
② Teacher Zhang teaches class three, Teacher Li teaches class four.
③ The number of people going to Alishan is increasing, while the cherry blossoms there are becoming more beautiful.
④ East of the river is a cannon-shell clock; south of the bridge is a rail-clock.
⑤ In the days and nights of building the Alishan railway, difficulties appeared one after another, while the joy of overcoming them also arrived one after another.

(3) Division–combination relation
There are two forms: A. general statement first, then division; B. division first, then general statement.
The general part and the divided part are in a coordinated relation.

A. General first, then division
① There were quite a few visitors, some seeing people off, some bringing things, some both seeing off and bringing things.
② I have nothing to do every day; living like this for a long time becomes meaningless, and living too long becomes annoying.

Poetry example:
“Begonia Tattoo” / Yu Guangzhong
I had long forgotten there was a small scar on my left chest—why was it there, was it a knife, or a sword, or someone’s gentle lips / or an un-gentle curse that kissed it? (excerpt)

B. Division first, then general statement
③ Either drinking tea or drinking coffee, I am fine either way.
④ Sometimes daylight, sometimes full moon, life will not always be lucky.

Poetry examples:
a “Prodigal Returns” / Yu Guangzhong
Cuckoos calling, both shores sound the same; cotton trees blooming, both shores are equally brilliant; everything still follows the Shennong calendar. (excerpt)

b “Walking to Where Water Ends” / Zhou Mengdie
Walking to where water ends / no water, no end seen— / yet a faint fragrance / coldly in the eyes, in the ears, in the clothes. (excerpt)

c “A Bucket of Nails” / Xiang Ming
All are sharp / all have long and short / all are upright / all naked like phalluses / always ready to penetrate a weak place (excerpt)

2. Sequential compound sentences

Several clauses narrate successive actions or events; the order is chronological and cannot be reversed. Conjunctions may be omitted or used only in later clauses.

Common conjunctions:
“then,” “and then,” “next,” “first… then…,” “so,” “later,” “finally”

Examples:
(1) Jia Hui finished homework, then watched TV.
(2) The old man gave a glance, and A Q was taken into the fence.
(3) First Zhang San started arguing, then Li Si fired back, and the discussion became lively.

Poetry example:
“Maple Imprint” / Zhang Cuo
Along the stone steps, apart from a shocking trace of moss, there are scattered pools of water stains; the shape of the stains is strikingly like palm-shaped maple imprints—(excerpt)

3. Progressive compound sentences

The latter clause expresses a meaning deeper than the former clause.

Common conjunctions:
First clause: “not only,” “not merely,” “not just”
Second clause: “and also,” “and,” “also,” “further,” “even”

Examples:
(1) Mobile phones are not only varied in style, but also widely used.
(2) He not only speaks Minnan dialect but also Hakka dialect.

Poetry example:
“Or So-called Spring” / Yu Guangzhong
So-called wife, once was bride. So-called bride, once was girlfriend. So-called girlfriend, once was very shy. So-called non-famous and famous. So-called decay and immortality. Or so-called spring. (excerpt)

4. Alternative compound sentences

Several clauses present several situations, indicating a choice among them (“either this or that” or “one of the two”).

Common conjunctions:

(1) Either/or among options:
“either… or…,” “or else… or else…”; in questions: “is it… or…”

Examples:
① Either you go, or I go, or both of us go together.
② He is not interested in going to Alishan or Sun Moon Lake.
③ The journey is so far; we should either take a car or ride a bike; walking would be too tiring.
④ Do we go by train or by plane?

(2) Either this or that (mutually exclusive):
“not… but…” / “either… or…”

Examples:
① This child either plays ball or swims every day.
② Those who did not attend class today are either sick or have family matters.
③ The classmates in our class are either Hakka or indigenous people; none are Minnan.
④ In these days of training, either Zhang San cannot play due to illness, or Li Si takes leave due to matters.

Poetry example:
“Dutch Suspension Bridge” / Yu Guangzhong
Why is the raised object not a brush, but a gun? That sound does not wake the world; its echo will only arrive a hundred years later. (excerpt)

(3) Comparative choice:
One clause states what is chosen, the other what is abandoned. This is a special form of choice after comparison.

Common conjunctions:
“rather than… it is better to…” (what is chosen is after);
“better to… than not…” / “would rather… than…” (what is chosen is before).

Examples:
① Rather than believe in your money, it is better to believe in your wisdom.
② Parents would rather suffer themselves than let their children be wronged.

(2) Subordinate compound sentences

A compound sentence has two clauses, one as main (principal) and one as subordinate. The subordinate modifies or restricts the main clause. The restricted clause is the main clause, the other is the subordinate clause.

1. Causal compound sentences

The subordinate expresses cause, the main expresses result.

(1) Explanatory causal sentences
Common conjunctions: “because… so…,” “due to,” “therefore,” “thus,” “as a result,” “so that,” etc.

Examples:
① Due to full preparation, the meeting went smoothly.
② Because of the typhoon forecast, we did not go to Alishan.
③ Because of his indecision, he missed the opportunity.
④ These young teachers often fail to consider pedagogy, resulting in poor teaching outcomes.

(2) Inferential causal sentences
The subordinate states a premise already accepted; the main clause gives a conclusion.

Common conjunction: “since… then…”

Examples:
① Since he is unwilling, do not force him.
② Since you want to participate, register quickly.
③ Since he has admitted his mistake, everyone should forgive him.
④ Student: Teacher, I have a headache and fever. Teacher: Since you are unwell, go home and rest early.
⑤ Since they can do it, why can’t we?

Poetry example:
“In the Streets of China” / Ya Xian
Since there are gas lamps and neon lights, our old sun no longer lends itself to us. (excerpt)

2. Adversative (turning) compound sentences

The subordinate states a fact, but the main clause does not follow logically and instead presents an opposite or partially opposite fact.

(1) Strong contrast

Common conjunctions: “although… yet…,” “otherwise,” “or else,” “however”

Examples:
① Although snow still covers the mountain peaks, the plains below have already changed into spring attire.
② Fortunately the driver braked in time, otherwise the whole bus would have fallen off the cliff.
③ He lost his legs in the earthquake; however, he continued working with prosthetics.

Poetry example:
“Maple Imprint” / Zhang Cuo
Although I cherish every moment of the past and long for every moment of the future, yet now you, in shame and unease, struggle with how to break a promise.

(2) Light contrast

Common conjunctions: “however,” “yet,” “only,” “just”

Examples:
① His temper is not very good, but his heart is kind.
② China’s economic life has clearly improved, yet democracy and freedom are lacking.
③ You are indeed clever, only your temper could be more gentle.

Poetry example:
“Chess Piece” / Xiang Ming
A chess piece is just a chess piece; moving it back and forth is merely to recover a lost game. (excerpt)

3. Conditional compound sentences

The subordinate proposes a condition; the main clause expresses the result.

They can be divided into three types:

(1) Specific conditional sentences

The main clause expresses the result; the subordinate provides the condition required.

Common conjunctions:

“as long as… then…”
This expresses a sufficient-condition conditional relation: if A then B; without A, B does not necessarily fail; A is a sufficient condition of B.

Examples:
① As long as you are willing to work hard, you can learn English well.
② As long as two angles are vertically opposite angles, they are equal.
③ As long as everyone is willing, you can come as guests anytime.

Another type uses: “only if… then…” / “unless… otherwise…”
This expresses a necessary-condition relation: without A, there is no B; A is necessary for B.

Examples:
① Only by using this medicine can your illness be cured.
② Unless you personally invite him, he will not come.
③ Unless you also go, I will not go.

(2) Unconditional sentences

No matter what the condition is, the result remains the same.

Common conjunctions: “no matter (who/what/how)… all/also/still…”

Examples:
① No matter who pleads for him, he does not give face.
② No matter how great the difficulty is, we can overcome it.
③ No matter who participates in earthquake relief, the victims will be grateful.

(3) Hypothetical conditional sentences

The subordinate proposes a hypothetical condition; the main clause explains the result under that condition.

Common conjunctions:
Spoken: “if… then…”
Written: “if,” “suppose,” “provided that,” “in case,” etc., and main clause often uses “then,” “so,” “thus,” “therefore.”

Examples:
① If you like it, take it.
② If anything happens, call me.
③ If you betray the Communist Party, the organization will punish you mercilessly.

Poetry example:
“Oil Lamp” / Yu Guangzhong
If I walk all the way back, back to the starting point of wandering, I will see outside the ancient window the child reading at night, chanting Han Yu or Li Bai in the era without television. (excerpt)

Another type uses: “If (it is said that)… then…” which is not a true conditional relation but a comparison or contrast relation.

Examples:
① If in those years he was still somewhat immature, then now he is much more mature.
② If you had read more books when young, then you would not regret now.

Poetry example:
“Sky Lantern” / Xiang Ming
If above there is already darkness, all sources of light have been extinguished, and the underworld has formed, there would still not be enough fireflies emitting faint light. (excerpt)

Hypothetical conditional sentences may refer either to facts that have already happened or to unreal situations; the latter is more common.

① If you had come two days earlier, you could have seen Old Li.
→ This refers to a past fact; the hypothesis is unrealizable.

② If you had come earlier, you could still see Old Li.
→ This refers to something not yet realized; the hypothesis is still possible.

4. Concessive compound sentences

The subordinate admits a fact as concession; the main clause presents a positive statement from the opposite side.

Common conjunctions:
Subordinate: “although,” “even though,” “even if,” “no matter even if,” “even if it is”
Main: “also,” “still,” “all,” etc.

(1) Concession based on real fact

The subordinate describes an actual fact.

Examples:
① Although her health is not very good, she still insists on working.
② Although this matter is indeed his fault, you should not be unreasonable.

Poetry example:
“Water Wants to Commit Suicide for You to See” / Xiang Ming
Even though extremely gentle, extremely mild, it is inevitably compared to a drenched weak woman that can be held, drunk, washed, wiped, and kneaded.

(2) Hypothetical concession

The subordinate describes a hypothetical situation.

Examples:
① Even if it is windy and rainy, the competition will still proceed as usual.
② Even if difficulties are many, we must complete the task on time.
③ Even if we travel to the ends of the earth, we still cannot find such a soulmate.
④ Even if there are enormous difficulties, we must complete the project and open traffic as scheduled.

Poetry example:
“Love Story” / Bei Dao
Even on the path of a date, there will still be frost descending when hostile eyes meet. (excerpt)

5. Alternative-choice compound sentences

Two clauses present two possible situations while clearly selecting one of them.

Common conjunctions:
“rather than… it is better to…,” “rather than… would rather…”

Examples:
① Rather than sitting and waiting for death, it is better to rise up and resist.
② When handling work, rather than viewing it as easy, it is better to view it as difficult.
③ I originally wanted him to stay longer; rather than saying it gave him comfort, it is better to say it gave me comfort.

“would rather… than…” indicates a firm choice.

④ Better to eat a fresh peach than a basket of rotten apricots.
⑤ Better to arrive early at the exam venue than to rush at the last moment.
⑥ The rebels would rather die in battle than retreat.

6. Purpose compound sentences

The subordinate indicates purpose; the main clause states the action taken to achieve it.

Common conjunction: “for,” “in order to”

Examples:
① In order to improve employee efficiency, the company raises salaries and benefits year by year.
② In order to win medals at the Olympic Games, he practices weightlifting every day.

Also uses: “so as to avoid,” “so as to facilitate,” “lest,” “so that not,” etc.

Examples:
① Prepare the materials first so as to facilitate discussion in the meeting.
② Eat more so as not to get hungry later.
③ He has recently reduced his internet time so as not to affect final exams.

7. Time Compound Sentences

The subordinate clause indicates time, and the main clause indicates the event or situation that occurs within that time. Time compound sentences generally do not use conjunctions, but the main clause may use the conjunctions “then,” “still,” “only then”:

① Having walked less than twenty li, the weather changed.
② After working on the mountain for half a day, the sky had just begun to brighten.
③ The sun has risen as high as a person, and you still have not gotten up.

Poetry examples:
“Night Song” / Zheng Chouyu
At this time, our harbor is truly silent. When wind and lamps / when faint sorrow and past events are like small tides, you must quietly walk by, just like I quietly walk past this number fourteen pier with a beautiful curve (excerpt)

“Elegy of Sky Burial” / Xiang Ming
Next spring, by the roadside you once walked past, there may bloom a flower more beautiful than morning dew, fully and abundantly opening (excerpt)

8. Chain Compound Sentences

The subordinate clause and main clause are closely connected; generally the same conjunction appears repeatedly in the clauses.

Common conjunctions:
the more… the more…; whoever…; wherever…; however…

Examples:
① Whoever has no civic virtue and litters, I will report them and make them pay a fine.
② Wherever an accident occurs, rescue teams appear there.
③ The longer facial masks are applied, the more obvious the whitening effect becomes.
④ However I say it, you do it.

Poetry example:
“Dancer in Bud” / Xiang Ming
Take it off! / Only then does she realize / it is merely an onion from her father’s field / unsold / the more it is peeled / the whiter / the whiter / the more tender (excerpt)

9. Supplementary Explanatory Compound Sentences

For a specific domain, two clauses that mutually supplement meaning, or question-and-answer clauses, express a complete meaning. This is called a supplementary compound sentence. Such sentences often divide a subject into two images in a structured, mutually complementary way.

In subordinate compound sentences, the subordinate clause usually comes first and the main clause follows. However, in some cases the main clause may come first, and the subordinate clause appears later; the latter must use conjunctions and may emphasize the subordinate clause.

Common conjunctions:
…, although…; … because…; … even if…; … even though…; … as long as…

Examples:
① We must hold the position and continue fighting, even if we fight to the last person.
② This month’s work schedule can be completed ahead of time, as long as everyone puts in a little more effort.
③ Granny Zhu Yudü, who sells ten-dollar boxed lunches, is great, although she does not have the strong financial resources of organizations like Tzu Chi.

(3) Multiple Compound Sentences

Some compound sentences consist of three or more clauses, forming two or more levels. Such sentences are called multiple compound sentences.

Example:
Taking good classroom notes not only helps us fully grasp and deeply understand the teacher’s lecture content, but also helps us accumulate rich learning materials for the future; therefore, it is very important.
(“not only… but also…”: progressive compound sentence; “therefore…”: causal compound sentence)

4. Grammatical Characteristics of Modern Poetry

1. Appropriate Use of Rhetorical Devices

The poet Luo Fu once said: “Poets are magicians of language,” pointing out that modern poets, like magicians, create new and novel language through transformation. In every era, poets act as pioneers of linguistic innovation, exhausting their effort to reform grammar, forge new vocabulary, and drive the renewal and evolution of language. For example:

1. Zheng Chouyu: “beautiful mistake” is an oxymoron.
2. Luo Fu: “Fire, I wait for you in the ashes,” and Yu Guangzhong:
   “Wine enters the heroic heart / seven parts ferment into moonlight / the remaining three parts roar into sword energy / a single spit from a brocade mouth becomes half of the Tang dynasty” — all are surreal hyperbolic expressions.
3. Luo Fu: “With a single whip / the sound of hooves becomes an unreturnable mountain landscape,” transforming sound into visual form, shifting from auditory to visual perception.
   “Evening bell / is the path of tourists descending the mountain / fern plants / along the white stone steps / chewing all the way down,” where the first two lines transform sound into form (auditory to visual), and the last three lines shift from visual to taste (chewing), and from static to dynamic perception—these are synesthetic sensory shifts.
4. Yu Guangzhong: “Then fold a broader lotus leaf / wrap a piece of moonlight back / take it home and place it within Tang poetry / flat and thin / like pressed longing” — a dreamlike and imaginative metaphor.
5. Bai Ling: “Only wine distilled through artillery fire / is especially lucid / every drop lets your tongue / taste a bayonet” — “taste a bayonet” not only creates imagery but also a sharp tactile sensation; it combines visual and tactile perception, forming a vivid and creative synesthetic description.

From the above examples, readers should realize that these poetic lines, rich and worth savoring repeatedly, all share a common feature: they employ rhetorical devices. This shows that proper use of rhetorical techniques can enliven imagery, transform and deepen meaning, enrich poetic works, and produce creative elements that attract readers’ attention, directly enhancing readability.

Modern poets exhaust their minds to create new vocabulary and new artistic realms. As Du Fu said: “If words do not startle, one would rather die.” Such passionate creative drive not only expands the aesthetic vision of contemporary readers but also enriches and deepens the aesthetics of modern poetry.

2. Influence of European-Americanized Grammar

Some modern poets, through reading European and American poetry, absorb Western grammatical structures, resulting in frequent use of inverted sentences, parenthetical insertions, run-on lines, and verbose expressions. Poet Yu Guangzhong holds a relatively positive view of “Europeanized grammar,” pointing out that “parenthetical habits and more lively inversion can make Chinese writing more vivid.” For example:

1. Inversion

① Zheng Chouyu: “That beautiful nostalgia, within reach,” and “Under moonlight, I transmit from the strings the sorrowful ‘Military Order’…”
The original order is: “Within reach that beautiful nostalgia” and “Under moonlight, from the strings I transmit the sorrowful ‘Military Order’…”

② Yu Guangzhong: “A colder season, inspired by you / plum blossoms bloom in thousands of trees competing against ice and snow / behind you, lingering echoes never cease.”
The original order is “competing against ice and snow.” It was inverted to align rhyme with the following line “lingering echoes never cease,” both ending in the same phonetic rhyme; this is inversion for the sake of rhyme coordination.

③ Luo Fu: “Suddenly from deep within the strata comes / a burst of crashing applause / when I lift a handful of fallen leaves / as for the conclusion / no one knows except the autumn wind…”
This passage contains two inversions. The normal order would be: “When I lift a handful of fallen leaves / a burst of crashing applause / suddenly comes from deep within the strata / except for the autumn wind, no one knows the conclusion.”

Fifth Section: Language Errors and Linguistic Obstructions in Modern Poetry

Language is a complex combination formed only through the integration of multiple rule systems. In Bloom and Lahey’s 1978 paper, it is pointed out that language is composed of the intersection of three elements: form, content, and use. Form includes syntax, morphology, and phonology; it is a structural component that connects speech sounds and symbols. Content refers to semantics, while use refers to pragmatics.

In the author’s understanding, linguistic error sentences are examined from the syntactic level, namely “syntactic structures,” to analyze sentences and vocabulary; while linguistic obstruction sentences are examined from the semantic level, namely “conceptual structures,” to investigate sentences and vocabulary.

I. Understanding “Language Errors”

(1) What are “language errors”

Language-error sentences refer to sentences that do not conform to grammatical norms. Common types are as follows:

(1) Improper word order

Word order refers to the arrangement of sentence components within a sentence. The positions of these components are relatively fixed; if they are moved away from their inherent positions, word-order errors may occur.

1. Reversal of component order

Error: Sleeping in the well-organized bed the children, also no longer speak.
Correct: The children sleeping in the well-organized bed also no longer speak.

2. Disorder of correspondence relations

Error: The document regarding problems in the economic field has, in theory and policy, made detailed regulations and profound explanations.
Correct: The document regarding problems in the economic field has, in policy and theory, made detailed regulations and profound explanations.

3. Misplacement of conjunctions

Error: If he cannot treat others modestly, the friends around him will become fewer and fewer.
Correct: If he cannot treat others modestly, the friends around him will become fewer and fewer.

(2) Improper collocation

The relationship among sentence components is essentially a semantic collocation relationship. Semantic collocation mainly concerns logical reasoning and language habit. What conforms to logic and language habit is proper collocation; otherwise it is improper collocation.

1. Subject–predicate mismatch

Error: Father’s illness has never improved, but he is still working hard for a living.
Correct: Father’s illness has never improved, but he is still working hard for a living.

2. Verb–object mismatch

Error: The old man grinned his teeth, pretending to smile.
Correct: The old man bared his teeth, pretending to smile.

3. Modifier–head mismatch

Error: Many students wearing school uniforms and elderly people were lining up to rush purchases there.
Correct: Many elderly people and students wearing school uniforms were lining up to rush purchases there.

4. Coordination mismatch

Error: Oranges, apples, carrots and other fruits contain rich vitamins.
Correct: Oranges, apples, and carrots contain rich vitamins.

5. One-sided vs two-sided mismatch

Error: Whether integrity can be maintained is the key for a government to gain public trust.
Correct: Maintaining integrity is the key for a government to gain public trust.

6. Conjunction mismatch

Error: Since it was an event from more than ten years ago, I still remember it vividly.
Correct: Although it was an event from more than ten years ago, I still remember it vividly.

(3) Structural disorder

Chinese syntax has a relatively independent system; it cannot be confused arbitrarily, otherwise structural disorder arises. Common types include mixed sentence patterns and incorrect clause order.

1. Mixed sentence pattern (contamination of structures)

Error: Lin Meiling’s grades in every subject exceed 90 points or above.
Correct: Lin Meiling’s grades in every subject exceed 90 points.

2. Incorrect clause order

Error: Jiahao fell onto the grass, struck by a tall boy’s fist.
Correct: Jiahao was struck by a tall boy’s fist and fell onto the grass.

(4) Improper word choice or misuse of word class

Words are the foundation of language. If one does not understand their parts of speech, usage, and meaning, syntactic errors will occur. Common types include:

1. Confusion of word class

Error: Regarding the problems we face, I must think about them seriously.
Correct: Regarding the problems we face, I must think about them seriously.

2. Unclear word meaning

Error: I sleep in the same bed as my brother; we often “dream different dreams in the same bed.”
Correct: I sleep in the same bed as my brother; we often have different dreams.

3. Coined or fabricated expressions

Error: The beach left a line of human prints, but the waves washed them away.
Correct: The beach left a line of footprints, but the waves washed them away.

4. Improper stylistic coloration

Error: I have always held this matter in my heart and feel deep regret toward my cousin.
Correct: I have never been able to forget this matter and feel deep regret toward my cousin.

5. Misuse of intensity level

Error: Mother stopped me from going outside to play.
Correct: Mother did not allow me to go outside to play.

6. Misuse of word class

This includes improper use of “conversion of word class” (transposition) and incorrect grammatical lexical choices (adjectives and adverbs). See the following poetic analysis:

Poetic Example Analysis: “Fire-Eater” / Hsu Che-wei

That man, a broken tree that has stopped growing
The annual rings of regeneration, forgetting to demand from the earth
The soul, devouring the form of flame
A gray bird flies into
the bone-china urn of a confined space
Meditating on whether the distant world has a boundary between life and death

The chimney raises its head, a long protruding elephant trunk
Harvesting sweet fruits from the jungle of the human world
Worshippers bow their heads wearing black robes
After completion, like a black pearl necklace
broken off the thread like rain, scattering everywhere

The most unfamiliar journey, seemingly bright and clear
Opening the mouth to eat fire, a chrysalis-transformed body
Broken cocoons and butterflies are all falling memories
A strand of ascending white smoke, a blade
of ancient sharpness cutting through worldly edges
Pain and splendor separate like bone and flesh
Inside the furnace door, millions of lotus relics are burned out
yet not a single grain belonging to oneself can be burned

Fire-eater, sustaining life by igniting fire
Cold icy soil still has warm hands sending him off
After a hundred generations, flowers bloom or rain falls
The game of the Rubik’s cube of time
I, managing the present, gaze at the forest of steles facing sunlight
A bell ringing off duty and going home
echoes softly, awakening…
a scheduled dawn that arrives repeatedly

Chen Qufei’s Commentary

This poem “The Fire-Eating Man” has a distinctive title. From the narrative context of the poem, the author attempts to, through the perspective of a crematorium worker, and from the scenes of the crematorium and the cremation of the deceased, convey certain ideas. However, the thematic image “fire-eating man” ultimately refers to the cremated “that person” in the first and third stanzas, or to the cremation worker “I” who “makes a living by igniting fire” in the final stanza; the author does not seem to clearly specify this, resulting in semantic obstacles in reading. In other words, the confusion of story roles and unclear contextual threads is the main reason this poem is difficult to interpret.

From the depiction in the first stanza, it can be inferred that “that person” is the deceased being cremated: “a gray bird flies into / the bone-porcelain urn within a square inch of space / contemplating whether there is a boundary between life and death in a distant world.” However, associating the deceased with a withered tree and then extending it into tree rings seems to lack similarity between the elements, appearing abrupt and unnecessary, thereby creating obstacles in semantic understanding (semantic obstruction).

The second stanza describes the appearance of the crematorium and the farewell ceremony held by relatives and friends for the deceased. It says: “mourners bowing their heads dressed in black / after the ritual ends, like a black pearl necklace / broken and scattered like rain.” Comparing the black-clothed mourners to “a black pearl necklace broken and scattered like rain” similarly feels lacking in similarity. If replaced with the image of “crows,” it would be more reasonable and the visual scene would be more vivid. Perhaps the author’s original intention was: the deceased is like the thread that strings the black pearl necklace; when the thread breaks, the mourners scatter like raindrops. The scattered black pearls and raindrops do have a visual resemblance, but their physical properties are still clearly different.

The third stanza semantically describes the cremation process of the deceased, but the imagery shifts too quickly, and both linguistic errors and semantic obstacles appear. First, describing the cremated deceased as a “chrysalis butterfly breaking out of its cocoon” is problematic; the body being cremated and turning into “a wisp of white smoke rising to the sky” is a liberation of form, whereas a “chrysalis butterfly” represents metamorphosis and rebirth. The two images have no real similarity or connection, making the association far-fetched and creating semantic obstruction. Secondly, “an ancient blade of sharpness cutting through the mortal world / sorrow and splendor like the separation of bone and flesh” is difficult to interpret due to contradiction in meaning. The latter phrase directly compares abstract emotions and concrete funeral arrangements to “the separation of bone and flesh,” which is not only syntactically strange but also semantically obscure. Even from the perspective of the deceased’s relatives, it would be more reasonable to say “from this point on, heaven and humanity are forever separated.” However, the line “within the furnace door, thousands of lotus relics are produced / yet not a single grain is produced for oneself” contains philosophical reflection. Structurally, it uses contradictory syntax: “thousands of lotus relics are produced” is affirmative, while “yet not a single grain is produced for oneself” negates the former, forming internal contradiction, seemingly implying that the cremated deceased is an ordinary person who never attained spiritual cultivation.

The final stanza also has many problems. “Fire-eating man, sustaining life by igniting fire / the cold frozen earth still has warm hands to send one off.” “Cold frozen earth” implies the world after death, but it is immediately followed by “after hundreds of generations, flowers bloom or rain falls / the game of a Rubik’s Cube of time.” What exactly the author intends to express is unclear; insufficient clues are provided, and readers naturally cannot understand the relationship between “flowers blooming or rain falling / time Rubik’s Cube” and the world after cremation. Finally, “I, managing the present, looking at a forest of monuments under sunlight / the bell of getting off work and going home rings softly… the regularly arriving dawn,” the phrase “I, managing the present, looking at a forest of monuments under sunlight” seems that “managing the present” can be directly removed as a redundant insertion that should not be forcibly embedded grammatically.

Overall, this poem contains many problems in both semantics and syntax. Many lines are not only awkward to read but also quite difficult to understand. Its expressive technique indeed still has much room for improvement. Its selection as an outstanding work may be due to the judges being influenced by “theme-first thinking,” assuming that a poem titled “The Fire-Eating Man” dealing with cremation would contain promising passages. However, after analysis, no notable lines, highlights, or meaningful artistic insights can be found.

This is also the main problem faced by this poetry solicitation activity: since the works are generally mediocre and excellent pieces are rare, it is difficult to select works that meet readers’ expectations. It seems to reflect that online poetry is not only uneven in quality but also generally in decline in poetic quality. Therefore, it is even more necessary to invest effort in cultivating online new poetry and critical analysis, guiding beginners who are willing to create, so that they may gradually move beyond linguistic errors and semantic obstacles and grow along a more stable path.

II. Understanding “Semantic Obstruction”

(1) What is “semantic obstruction”

Here, “semantic obstruction” refers to cases where, due to sentence incompleteness, missing or redundant components, or unclear expression, readers find it difficult to understand the true meaning of the speaker or author. Common types include the following:

(1) Missing components

Different sentence types contain different components. If any part is omitted or inappropriately left out, structural incompleteness occurs.

1	Missing subject
Wrong: All do not cherish time are wrong.	Correct: All acts of not cherishing time are wrong.

 

2	Missing predicate
Wrong: The sweet fragrance of osmanthus in the campus every corner.	Correct: The sweet fragrance of osmanthus spreads through every corner of the campus.

 

3	Missing object
Wrong: Three Hundred Tang Poems is what I like most.	Correct: Three Hundred Tang Poems is my favorite book.

 

4	Incomplete modifier
Wrong: He stood and sat, sat and stood, until dawn.	Correct: He stood up and sat down, sat down and stood up, until dawn.

(2) Redundant components

Each sentence component has its own function; it cannot be incomplete, nor can it be arbitrarily added.

1	Redundant wording
Wrong: Driving there takes fifteen of minutes.	Correct: Driving there takes fifteen minutes.

 

2	Repetition
Wrong: I sat alone by myself on the beach.	Correct: I sat alone on the beach.

 

3	Arbitrary stacking
Wrong: His English foundation is very poor, his base is very weak.	Correct: His English foundation is very poor.

 

4	Redundant filler
Wrong: As a student, I am already a second-year student.	Correct: I am already a second-year student.

Chen Qufei’s Analytical Commentary

This poem “Dream of Drilling Wood” is not only intriguing in its title, but the imagery involved in the text—centered around “wood” → “flame” → “dream”—is equally thought-provoking. Of course, during the reading process, one encounters many obstacles to understanding. These obstacles come from long sentences and complex free association. The author seems to use a jumpy form of “automatic language” (automatic language) to handle images produced through “horizontal thinking” (free association), and deliberately ignores the logical relational chain between sentences, thereby forming several instances of semantic “broken chains,” resulting in frequent “semantic barriers” during reading.

“We all panic and search for another / piece of wood that can be drilled / that is an image not allowed to be destroyed.” From wood being associated with image, the relationship between the two, if treated as metaphor, is not workable because there is a lack of visual similarity; it can only be regarded as a suddenly emerging free association.

“Thus striking the passers-by not yet understood / a sentence of sky rain wets / the sadness seen by the eyes.” Passers-by are not objects such as bells or drums—how can they be struck? And what is striking them? There is no semantic clue here. The phrase “sky rain” used with the classifier “a sentence” is clearly inaccurate and should be changed to “a shower” or “a burst.”

“The colors cannot escape the invasion of black-and-white colors / only dark clouds are gray, safely in / a corner watching a coin thrown into a broken begging bowl.” This passage personifies dark clouds and is semantically understandable.

“We who are madly drilling wood / already have blackened youthful faces.” In the latter line, the word “blackened” is deliberately converted from adjective into verb, making the syntax awkward. The normal structure should be: “the youthful faces have already blackened,” but even so, the meaning remains unnatural.

“In the maze where red flowers fall in June / … whether they will fall one by one through the broken hole.” This passage moves from deer to eagle as a form of “transformative imagination,” then returns to “flame” and “dream,” and then brings in “people on a high tower.” However, the reader’s interpretive thread again crashes: “or seeing through the steep rock walls inside the mask.” If the author intends to depict the coldness beneath the mask, using “steep rock walls” as imagery is strange and inappropriate. “Thus not caring whether the coins in the bowl fall through the broken hole one by one” is also an inexplicable conclusion lacking causal logic.

The concluding section: “Are the dreams of drilling wood dreams waiting to be abandoned? / In spring deceiving oneself is a popular behavior,” is semantically acceptable. But the following lines—“and the sea surface and sea bottom are opposite words / under many eyes forced to appear calm”—again become obscure. The “many eyes” may barely be interpreted as the eyes of marine creatures, but what exactly is meant by “opposite words” remains unclear.

“But the hands drilling wood still keep moving / yet can only be silent, quietly before the flame appears.” This final line again presents a strange oxymoron: if the hands are still moving, how can they also be “silent, quietly”? Perhaps the author means the emotional state of holding one’s breath before ignition occurs.

This poem attracts interest because it bears the appearance of surrealist “automatic language.” However, in poetic practice, because logical relations between images are deliberately severed, many linguistic and semantic obstacles inevitably arise, creating difficulties and challenges in reading. Occasional experimentation is acceptable, but it should not be taken as a viable long-term writing strategy. The purpose of selecting this poem is to help readers recognize “automatic language,” not because of its excellence, but because it is indeed “very unusual.”

III. Sentence Correction

Identify language errors or semantic obstacles, and try to revise the following problematic sentences:

Original sentence | Correct sentence

1. This major earthquake caused the death of more than 200,000 people. | “Caused death” is an intransitive verb and cannot take an object. Revise to: “More than 200,000 people died in this major earthquake.”
2. Recently he finalized a long novel. | “Finalize” is an intransitive verb and cannot take an object. Revise to: “Recently a long novel of his was finalized.”
3. In his creative work he is especially good at the use of small props. | “Be good at” cannot take a nominal object. Revise to: “using small props.”
4. Because they do not pay attention to fire prevention, and the fire-prevention equipment is very outdated, there exists a greater danger. | “Exist” here is used incorrectly with an object-like structure. Change “exists” to “is hidden” / “is latent” (i.e., revise to a form equivalent to “a greater danger is latent”).
5. Tourists who come to sightsee all praise this as a paradise on earth. | “Praise as” is a noun usage and cannot take an object in this way. Change “praise” to “exclaim in admiration / admire.”
6. They sent these fossils to the relevant authorities and asked experts to conduct an examination of the scientific value of these fossils. | Remove “conduct.”
7. Please quickly tidy up the room; guests are about to arrive. | Remove “a bit / once” (the redundant “一下”).
8. I am truly sorry, I really cannot help you. | Change “cannot help you” to “cannot manage to help you.”
9. Polar bears also have the habit of seasonal migration. In spring they drift northward, and people have encountered them on drifting ice floes 1,000 kilometers from the mainland coast, or even farther north; in autumn they return to lower-latitude regions. | Change “encountered” to “met.”

Note:

1. From Dongcheng Jushi, Notes on Someone’s Residence http://blog.xuite.net/wdc6043/wretch/149349832-%E7%AD%94K%E5%95%8F%E8%BF%B4%E8%A1%8C