Chapter 10 Ornate Forms (Part Three): Iterative Presentation (迭現)
Section One: Iterative Presentation (Exhaustive Enumeration)
I. Definition and Characteristics of Iterative Presentation
“Iterative Presentation” is also referred to by some scholars as “Exhaustive Enumeration” or “Surging Listing.”¹ It is a rhetorical device established upon the psychological foundation of “free association.” From the author's perspective, it is “a rhetorical method that, through the operation of free association and intuition, irregularly and excessively assembles scattered materials together, concentrating on the depiction of scenes and images so as to enhance the expressive power and emotional impact of language art.”¹ From the reader's perspective, “Exhaustive Enumeration means arranging together numerous materials that appear unrelated on the surface but actually possess internal unity, thereby arousing associations in readers and expressing certain ideas and situations through such associations.”²
Mainland Chinese scholars such as Lu Jiaxiang and others believe that “Iterative Presentation” and “Exhaustive Enumeration” are two independent rhetorical devices. “Iterative Presentation” is “a rhetorical method in literary works that employs condensed and image-oriented sentence patterns to concentrate on depicting a series of orderly scenes through association, imagination, recollection, intuition, and similar mental activities, thereby enhancing the artistic appeal of language.”⁴ “Exhaustive Enumeration,” on the other hand, is “a rhetorical method that uses an excessive quantity of words, phrases, or sentences in a complex and seemingly disorderly listing to convey abundant information and to serve an elaborative function in description and narration.”⁵ Examining their similarities, both adopt a “parallel structure.” In terms of structure, “Iterative Presentation consists of two or more parallel nouns, verbs, adjectives, or phrases and sentences formed by these content words, with few or no function words used between them.”⁶ “Exhaustive Enumeration is a parallel structure in which multiple items are listed at one time. The listed items are not necessarily required to be balanced; the amount of text may vary, and neatness of form is not required. It may consist of words, phrases, or sentences. The words need not belong to the same part of speech, and the phrases and sentences need not share the same grammatical structure.”⁷ There are indeed some subtle differences between Iterative Presentation and Exhaustive Enumeration:
(1) In terms of conceptual scope, Exhaustive Enumeration is broader than Iterative Presentation and is not limited to “image-oriented sentence patterns.” Iterative Presentation, by contrast, primarily emphasizes the presentation of “concrete scenes” and directly employs such concrete scenes as its materials.⁸
(2) In terms of form, Iterative Presentation requires “the concentrated depiction of a series of orderly scenes.” The form of Exhaustive Enumeration does not require neatness; that is, “balance is not necessarily required, and the amount of text may vary.”
(3) In terms of parts of speech and grammatical structure, Iterative Presentation requires uniformity of parts of speech and consistency of grammatical structure; Exhaustive Enumeration imposes no such restrictions.
However, in this book, the author intends to use “Iterative Presentation” as an umbrella term encompassing “Exhaustive Enumeration,” and will no longer dwell on the subtle distinctions between the two, so as to facilitate illustration through examples.
The rhetorical characteristics of Iterative Presentation may be summarized in the following four aspects:⁹
(I) Rich Information Capacity
The use of Iterative Presentation reflects the author's deliberate introduction of an extraordinary amount of information within a passage. This information may appear chaotic or even redundant, yet its purpose may be to express complex and multifaceted emotions, or to reveal an unpredictable stream of consciousness, thereby producing a sense of overwhelming abundance and dazzling profusion.
(II) Unrestricted Freedom of Association
Iterative Presentation is not constrained by time or space and can organize materials across great spans and at a rapid pace. It demonstrates the process of rapidly flowing consciousness within the author's psychological activity of free association. “Therefore, Iterative Presentation excels at depicting various subjective feelings of characters and, through such depictions, exposing their psychological states while revealing the rich connotations of the objective world and social life. The abundant information contained in Iterative Presentation is precisely the result of free association.”¹⁰
(III) Apparent Disorder in Form
Formally, Iterative Presentation is an unconventional parallel sentence pattern that often appears disordered or even absurd. What it pursues is an inner unity and harmony based upon psychological logic.
(IV) Flexible Conditions of Formal Construction
The sentence patterns constituting Iterative Presentation may consist of words, phrases, or sentences. These constituent elements may be joined together despite having no apparent connection or relevance to one another.
II. Historical Origins and Development of Iterative Presentation
“Iterative Presentation” is more commonly used in novels and prose, where scattered materials are assembled together to concentrate on depicting scenes, images, or sequential reasoning, thereby enhancing the expressive force of language within passages. Regulated verse is restricted by length, making it difficult for this rhetorical device to be fully developed. Ancient poetry, Yuefu poetry, and Yuan drama songs provide greater room for its application. Yuan drama songs, in particular, often employ “Iterative Presentation” to strengthen the momentum of a passage.
In the poem “Liao E” from the “Xiaoya” section of the Book of Songs:
“Father, you gave me life;
Mother, you nurtured me.
You cherished me and raised me;
You helped me grow and educated me.
You cared for me and looked after me;
You carried me in and out in your arms.
Wishing to repay such kindness,
Its extent is as boundless as Heaven.”
This is a typical example of “homogeneous Iterative Presentation.” The author lists, one by one, the various stages through which parents raise their children, thereby expressing the utmost praise for parental love and kindness.
The famous monk-poets Hanshan and Shide once left behind a thought-provoking dialogue.
Hanshan said:
“When people slander me, deceive me, insult me, mock me, belittle me, despise me, hate me, and cheat me, what should I do?”
Shide replied:
“Simply endure them, yield to them, let them be, avoid them, tolerate them, respect them, ignore them; after some time has passed, just watch what becomes of them.”
Both the question and the answer unfold layer by layer through the rhetorical device of Iterative Presentation. The reasoning progresses gradually from the superficial to the profound. This dialogue vividly demonstrates the Buddhist spirit and cultivation of patience and endurance, offering repeated food for thought to modern people whose emotional intelligence is generally rather low.
In Bai Pu’s Yuan dynasty song “Tianjingsha: Autumn”:
“A lonely village, setting sun, fading rosy clouds;
Light smoke, old trees, cold crows;
Beneath the shadow of a single flying wild goose.
Green mountains, clear waters,
White grass, red leaves, yellow flowers.”
In the first two lines, six concrete nouns appear one after another in an additive manner, presenting a picture of a mountain village at dusk. In the last two lines, five colors are applied to five concrete nouns, rendering the village scene colorful and vivid. Since these are all “scenic expressions” (noun-modifier structures), they should be regarded as examples of “catalogue imagery.” However, the middle line, “Beneath the shadow of a single flying wild goose,” is not merely a scenic expression, for it contains the verbal predicate “descending” or “falling beneath.” Thus, this song also possesses the form of Iterative Presentation.
Another example is Cao Xueqin’s “Birds Fly Back to Their Separate Forests” from the Qing dynasty:
“Those who held office—their family fortunes decline.
Those who were wealthy—their gold and silver are exhausted.
Those who showed kindness—escape from death.
Those who were heartless—receive unmistakable retribution.
Those who owed lives—the debt of life is repaid.
Those who owed tears—the tears are spent.
The cycle of vengeance is by no means trivial.
Separation and reunion are all predestined.
If you wish to know why life is short, ask about a former existence.
To enjoy wealth and honor in old age is indeed fortunate.
Those who see through illusion
Enter the empty gate.
Those who remain obsessed
Throw away their lives in vain.
It is just like birds flying back to their separate forests after feeding their fill.
Leaving behind a vast expanse of white emptiness, utterly clean.”
The opening six lines likewise unfold successively through a parallel structure. Beginning with “official position,” “wealth,” “kindness,” “heartlessness,” “life,” and “tears,” the poem progresses from external circumstances to inner emotions, layer by layer, with a clear line of development. Furthermore, Cao Xueqin’s “The Song of Well-Done” is composed almost entirely through the rhetorical device of Iterative Presentation, presenting reason and emotion with distinct and orderly progression.
Section Two: The Formal Aesthetics of Iterative Presentation
I. The Foundation of Formal Beauty
“Unity in Diversity” is the foundation of the formal beauty of Iterative Presentation. Through the psychological and sensory activities of “intuition” (direct perception) and “free association,” Iterative Presentation organizes and links together a series of people and phenomena of different scopes, different natures, and unequal quantities by means of unconventional parallel sentence structures. The constituent elements themselves possess “diversity,” yet they are all unified upon the basis of “psychological logic.” Iterative Presentation “joins together a great many materials, enabling people to search for underlying threads amid disorder, seek unity amid disharmony, and, through association, discover the ideas the author wishes to express and the scenes the author wishes to sketch within these materials that are both chaotic and structured, both disharmonious and unified.”¹¹
II. The Psychological Foundation
From the perspective of creation, the psychological foundation of Iterative Presentation lies in “intuition” and “free association.” The former refers to “the process of aesthetic psychological activity carried out by the aesthetic subject on the basis of directly contemplating the aesthetic object.”¹² The latter refers to the generation of imagination through accidental ideas, after which the mind is allowed to roam freely, without boundaries or direction, with one idea leading to another.¹³
What Iterative Presentation pursues is “an inner unity and harmony founded upon psychological logic. Therefore, under the influence of association and intuition, those scattered, irregular, and excessive materials can be assembled into complete and unified images that depict human emotions and reveal the deeper meanings of life.”¹⁴
Section Three: The Formal Structure of Iterative Presentation
Iterative Presentation is a parallel structure in which multiple items are listed at one time. The listed items are not necessarily required to be balanced in wording, nor is formal neatness required. “In form, Iterative Presentation is an unconventional parallel sentence structure. The parallel items are often people and phenomena of different scopes, different natures, and unequal quantities. Formally, it often appears chaotic and disordered, sometimes giving people a sense of absurdity.”¹⁵
The formal structure of Iterative Presentation resembles Parallelism and Catalogue Imagery, but it possesses a much looser structure. Iterative Presentation often borrows the linguistic form of Parallelism, yet differs from it. Parallelism requires a group of related or similar phrases and sentences to be arranged together in order to strengthen momentum and express emotion. Iterative Presentation, on the contrary, allows words, phrases, and sentences to be joined together even if they have no connection whatsoever, thereby creating an elusive and bewildering linguistic context.
Iterative Presentation also differs from Catalogue Imagery. Catalogue Imagery can only be composed of nouns or noun phrases. What Catalogue Imagery depicts is a picture or scene; therefore, it is also called “scene listing.” Although the meanings among the words and phrases within Catalogue Imagery may leap from one to another, they remain related or similar. This is fundamentally different from the formal disorder characteristic of Iterative Presentation.¹⁶
Section Four: The Forms of Expression of Iterative Presentation
According to the nature of the parallel materials, the forms of expression of Iterative Presentation may be divided into two categories: “Homogeneous Iterative Presentation” and “Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation.”
I. Homogeneous Iterative Presentation
This is the parallel combination of materials of the same type. Although the combination of homogeneous materials is somewhat more orderly than that of heterogeneous materials, it still retains the characteristics of “abundance” and “disorder.”
Du Shisan, “Ears”¹⁷
After ears are born
The sound of wind, the sound of rain, the sound of thunder, the sound of birds, the sound of ocean waves
The sound of singing, the sound of bells, the sound of engines, the sound of airplanes, the sound of automobile horns...
All surge forward together
With different tones, rhythms, and frequencies
At treetops, before windows, upon the sea, atop mountains, among houses, on roads
Day and night without cease
Performing for them
The sounds of the Earth
“The sound of wind, the sound of rain, the sound of thunder, the sound of birds, the sound of ocean waves / The sound of singing, the sound of bells, the sound of engines, the sound of airplanes, the sound of automobile horns...” These words, all describing various sounds and belonging to the same category, appear one after another before the ear like images on a revolving lantern. This is a typical example of “Homogeneous Iterative Presentation.”
Ya Xian, “The Theater, Farewell”¹⁸
Old Master Shakespeare, Marlowe, farewell.
Ibsen, O’Neill, farewell.
You Meng and Emperor Tang Minghuang, farewell.
Li Yu and Hong Sheng, farewell.
The lines of the poem list playwrights, actors, and emperors from different periods and countries. They are all personal names and therefore belong to the same category of words. This is likewise an example of “Homogeneous Iterative Presentation.”
II. Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation
This is the parallel combination of materials of different categories, presenting a dazzling scene that leaves one overwhelmed.
For example, in the final stanza of Xiong Hong’s “Hymn: All Buddhas Manifest Their Entire Bodies”:¹⁹
Wish-Fulfilling Jewel, Five-Colored Cloud, Jade Ring, Treasure Vase
Golden Wheel, Monk’s Staff
Held aloft in the hands
Blessing your peace,
Child of humanity
What are listed in these lines are ritual implements used in Buddhist practice. However, the objects differ in nature and create a dazzling visual abundance. They should therefore be regarded as “Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation.”
Ya Xian’s “Andante Cantabile”²⁰ employs both “Homogeneous” and “Heterogeneous” Iterative Presentation:
The necessity of affirmation
The necessity of gentleness
The necessity of a little wine and osmanthus blossoms
The necessity of seriously watching a woman walk by
The necessity of at least knowing that you are not Hemingway
The necessity of the European War, rain, cannons, weather, and the Red Cross
The necessity of taking a walk
The necessity of walking a dog
The necessity of peppermint tea
The necessity of rumors
Floating up like grass every evening at seven o’clock
From the far side of the stock exchange. The necessity of revolving glass doors.
The necessity of penicillin. The necessity of assassination. The necessity of evening newspapers.
The necessity of wearing flannel trousers. The necessity of horse-race tickets.
The necessity of inheriting an aunt’s estate.
The necessity of balconies, the sea, and smiles.
The necessity of laziness.
The form of this poem revolves around a common linguistic pattern: “the necessity of ___.” Upon detailed analysis, it is essentially a mixed form of “Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation,” which may be classified into three categories:
(1) Words and word groups: These may further be divided into nouns such as “taking a walk” and “revolving glass doors”; adjectives such as “gentleness” and “laziness”; and the verb “affirmation.” After being incorporated into the common linguistic pattern, these are presented in the form of phrases.
(2) Phrases: Such as “a little wine and osmanthus blossoms” and “wearing flannel trousers.” After incorporation into the common pattern, they remain phrases.
(3) Sentences: Such as “seriously watching a woman walk by” and “rumors floating up like grass.”
Furthermore, within the poem’s longer lines, “Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation” is employed again, as in “the necessity of the European War, rain, cannons, weather, and the Red Cross,” “the necessity of penicillin. The necessity of assassination. The necessity of evening newspapers,” and “balconies, the sea, and smiles.”
In addition, the poem borrows the outward appearance of Parallelism to make the Iterative Presentation exhibit “similarity within difference,” as in:
“The necessity of taking a walk /
The necessity of walking a dog /
The necessity of peppermint tea.”
This technique enables a large number of images to be accommodated within the poem’s lines, creating a lively scene of complexity and abundance.
Hsia Yu, “Rhyme”²¹
I need a little music, flowers, and fruit
I need some colors to paint
My toes
Give me clothes, cookies, and a water bottle
Give me a rocking horse, a map
A kite and a rope
Give me several strings of jewelry
To pass through my exposed
Lonely ears; give me some
Lovers, many pockets and drawers
To store away
The sorrows and joys
Of this lifetime
This poem likewise employs “Heterogeneous Iterative Presentation.” Examples include “music, flowers, and fruit” within a single line; “give me clothes, cookies, and a water bottle / give me a rocking horse, a map / a kite and a rope / give me several strings of jewelry” across multiple lines; and “give me some / lovers, many pockets and drawers.”
Such treatment of imagery resembles “running a general store.” It often leaves readers overwhelmed, with no time to take everything in. Within a very short period, their minds are flooded by these swarming visual images—various objects of all kinds—leaving them no opportunity to consider whether causal or conditional relationships exist among the images. The poet’s intention is precisely to prevent readers from pausing to analyze or reflect, thereby conveying the complex, chaotic emotions of the poet’s inner world.
Notes
- Edited by Yang Chunlin and Liu Fan, The Great Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Arts, Xi’an: Shaanxi People’s Publishing House, 1991, p. 1412.
- Same as Note 1, p. 1412.
- Edited by Cheng Weijun and two others, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Taipei: Jianhong Publishing, 1998, p. 872.
- Edited by Lu Jiaxiang and Chi Taining, Dictionary of Illustrative Explanations of Rhetorical Devices, Hangzhou: Zhejiang Education Publishing House, 1990, p. 49.
- Same as Note 4, p. 190.
- Same as Note 4, p. 49.
- Same as Note 4, p. 190.
- Edited by Cheng Weijun and two others, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Taipei: Jianhong Publishing, 1998, p. 872.
- Edited by Tang Songbo and Huang Jianlin, The Great Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Figures, Taipei: Jianhong Publishing, 1996, p. 965.
- Same as Note 1, p. 1412.
- Edited by Cheng Weijun and two others, Comprehensive Mirror of Rhetoric, Taipei: Jianhong Publishing, 1998, p. 872.
- Edited by Wang Shide, Dictionary of Aesthetics, Taipei: Muduo Publishing House, 1987, p. 68.
- Zhang Chunxing, Psychology, Taipei: Tung Hua Book Co., Ltd., 2000, p. 180.
- Same as Note 1, p. 1412.
- Same as Note 1, p. 1412.
- Edited by Tang Songbo and Huang Jianlin, The Great Dictionary of Chinese Rhetorical Figures, Taipei: Jianhong Publishing, 1996, p. 966.
- Quoted from Du Shisan, Notes of Sighs, Taipei: China Times Publishing Company, 1990, p. 148.
- Quoted from Ya Xian, Collected Poems of Ya Xian, Taipei: Chiuko Publishing Co., Ltd., 1986, pp. 274–275.
- Quoted from edited by Luo Men and Zhang Jian, The Infinite Blue of the Starry Sky, Taipei: Chiuko Publishing Co., Ltd., 1986, p. 443.
- Quoted from Ya Xian, Collected Poems of Ya Xian, Taipei: Chiuko Publishing Co., Ltd., 1986, pp. 200–201.
- Quoted from Hsia Yu, Memorandum, downloaded from the Internet, http://n5end.blogbus.com/logs/27298518.html.
